Basic Terminologies

Example 2:
When a “fair “ coin is tossed, the possible results are either head (H) or tail (T). Consider an
Experiment of tossing a fair coin three times
a. What are the possible outcomes?
b. Give the sample space.
c. Give the event of H appearing on the second throw.
d. Give the event of at least one T appearing.

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Exercise 8.1
1. A fair die is rolled once.
a. Give the event of obtaining a number equal to or greater than4.
b. Give the event of obtaining number zero.
2. A fair coin is tossed twice.
a. What are possible outcomes.
b. Give the sample space.
c. Give the event of at least one H appearing.

There two fundamental principles of counting. These are :

1. Multiplication principle.
2. Addition principle.

Defn: Let A and B be two tasks that can be done one following the other. If task A can be done

in m ways and task B can be done in n ways, then one following other can be done in
ways.

Example 1:

Solution:

S = { (tea, bread), (tea, cake), (tea, sandwich), (coffee, bread), (coffee, cake),

(coffee, sandwich), (milk, bread), (milk, cake), (milk, sandwich)}

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S = *( )( )( )( )( )( )( )( )( )( )( )( )+

Example 5:

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Example 6: Different codes , each of which consisting of 5 characters, are to be generated in such
a way that the first two characters are any of the English capital letters ( A to Z) and the remaining
3 are any of the digits ( 0, 1, 2, --- , 9 ). How many distinct codes can be generated so?
Solution:
There are 26 letters and 10 digits.
26 ways 26 ways 10 ways 10 ways 10 ways

The possible codes =

Exercise :
How many four digit numbers can be formed using 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 where a digit is used at most
once if the number must be:
a. Even ? b. odd? c. greater than 5000?
Exercise 8.2 : #3,4

Example 2:
4 red and 6 green marbles are placed in a bag. How many marbles are there to choose from?

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3 . Aster will draw one card from a standard deck of playing cards. How many ways can she
choose?
a. An even number? c. A king or a queen?
b. A heart , a diamond or a club? d. a king or a black?

Factorial Notation

Definition 8.1:
For any positive integer n, n factorial denoted as n! and defined as :

Solution :

A permutation is the number of arrangement of objects with attention given to the order of arrangements.

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Example : Give all permutations of three letters A, B and C.
Solution : P( 3, 3) .
There are ABC, ACB, BAC, BCA, CAB, and CBA.

P( 5, 5) .

Solution :
a. P( 4, 4) .
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 b. P( 4, 2) ( )
.
Exercise :
How many four digit numbers can be formed using 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9 where a digit is used at most
once if the number must be:
a. Even ? b. odd? c. less than 3000?
Solution :
a. ( ) ( ) ( )

b. ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

c. ( ) ( ) ( )
Example 5:

Solution :

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Exercise 8.5:

Example 5:

Example 6:

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A circularpermutation depends on the relative position of the students after you fix the position
of one student. In such cases, no matter where the first student sits, the permutation is not affected.
In circular permutation, the 1st student is considered a place holder, and where he/she sits does not
matter.

Example 7 :
In how many different ways can five people be seated at a round table ?
Solution : The number of ways will be ( ) .
Example 7 :
In how many ways 6 boys and 5 girls dine at a round circular table, if no two girls are sit together
Solution :

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First let as allot the seats to boys. Now 6 boys can arranged in ( ) circular
permutations.

occupied by 5 girls in P( ) Hence the total number of ways is given by

( ) .

Exercise 8.7

girls sit together?

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Note : Permutation of r objects out of n distinct objects objects, if repetation is allowed can be done
in
Examle : How many three digit numerals can be formed from the digits 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 if repetion is
allowed?
Sollution: n = 5 , r = 3
There are three digit numerals.

Combination is used when we are not interested in arranging, but only selecting r objects from n
objects.

Note :

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Exercise 8.8

Note : C( n, r) = C( n, n - r)
Example : If C( n, 6) = C(n, 4), then find n.
Solution : C( n, 6) = C(n, n -6) = C(n, 4)
n–6=4
Example 3 :

Solution :

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Exercise 8.9

3.

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 Theorem : For a non-negative integer n, the binomial expansion of ( ) is given by:

∑ ( )

Solution :

Exarcise 8.11

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d . Find the constant in the expansion of ( ) ?

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Example 5:

Exercise 8.13

Events and Sample space

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Example 2:
Suppose our experment is tossing a fair coin.
a. Find the sample space.
b. Find all subset (all possible events ) of the sample space.
Solution :
a. S = { H, T}.
b. * +* + * +.

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19
Exercise 8.15

Example 7 :
Let a die be rolled once. Let E be the event of a prime number appearing at the top i.e
E = {2, 3,5}. Give the complement of the event.
Solution : { 1, 4, 6}.

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Example 11:

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Example 14:

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Exercise 8.16

Approaches of probability
1. Classical ( mathematical) approach
2. Emperical approach
3. Axiomatic approach

Example 1:

a) Number 5 b) a number greater or equal to 4 c) Number 7

Solution : First identify the sample space .
{ 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} ( )
a) E = {5} ( )

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 ( )
( )
( )
b) E = {4,5,6} ( )
( )
( ) .
( )
a) E = ( )
( )
( )
( )

Example 2:

Solution :
The total number of possible outcomes ( ) ( )
The number of possible outcomes ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
( ) .
( )
Example3 :

a) 3 will be defective. b) 4 will be non-defective c ) all will be non-defective.

Solution :
n(S) ( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
a) ( ) .
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
b) ( ) .
( ) ( )
( ) ( ) ( )
c) ( ) .
( ) ( )

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Example1:

Example 2:

Exercise 8.19

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Solution : n(S) = number of total balls = 5 + 7 + 6 = 18 balls.
( )
a) ( ) .
( )

b) ( ) ( ) .

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a 0.2 0.01 0.09 0.3 0.02 0.08 0.3
b

c 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7

d -0.7 0.007 0.3 0.4 -0.2 0.1 0.3
e

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 Definition 8.11
If P(E) and P( ) are probability of the occurrence and non-occurrence of an events respectively, then the
Ratio of P(E) : P(E’) is called the odds in favour of the event and the ratio of P(E’) : P(E) is called the odds
Against the event.

Note :
If the probability of an event occurring is P(E), then the probability of the event not occuring
is given by :
P(E’) = 1 - P(E)

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Exercise 8.21:

Rule 1: If

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) and

Rule 2: If two events are mutually exclusive , ( i.e ) ( ) , then

( ) ( ) ( )

Solution :
a) S = {1,2,3,4,5,6} ( )
Let event of getting an odd number = {1, 3, 5}
event of getting a number 4 = {4}
, they are mutually exclusive events.
Thus , ( ) ( ) ( ) .
b) Let * +
* + S = { H, T}
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 , they are mutually exclusive events.
Thus , ( ) ( ) ( )

( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
Example 2 :

Solution :

Thus , ( ) ( ) ( ) .
c) n(S) = 36

( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .

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Exercise :
From a deck of 52 playing cards, one card is drawn at random. Find the probability that it is :
a. either an ace or a black card c . either a king or a red card.
b. either Queen or Jack.

Conditional probability
1. The probability of is given by:
( )
( ) ( )
2. The probability of is given by:
( )
( ) ( )
3.
Example 1 :

Solution : n( S) = 4 + 3 = 7 balls.
Let B = black ball , & W = white ball
If each ball is replaced, then are independent .
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 Thus, ( ) ( ) ( ) .
Example 2:
A box contains 3 red balls, 2 blue balls and 5 white balls. A ball is selected and its colour is
noted. Then it is replaced. A second ball is selected and its colour is noted. Find the
probability of the following.
a) Selecting 2 blue balls. c) selecting 1 red ball and then 1 white ball
b) selecting 1 blue ball and then 1 blue ball
Solution :

Example 3:

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Example 4:
A ball contains 4 white and 3 red balls. If two balls are drawn one after the other without
replacement. Find the probability that :
a) both are red. d. the first ball is white and the second is red.
b) both are white e . both are different colour.
st nd
c) the 1 ball is red and the 2 is white.
Solution :
Total balls = n( S) = 4 + 3 = 7 balls.
Let R = red ball & W = white ball
( )
a) P( ) ( ) ( ) . or ( ) ( )
( )
b) P( ) ( ) ( ) . or ( ) ( )

c) P( ) ( ) ( ) .
d) P( ) ( ) ( ) .
e) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
( ) ( )
Or ( ) .
( )
Example 5:
A bag contains 4 red , 3 white and 5 blue balls. Three balls are drawn one after the other. Find the
probability of getting:
a) All 3 are red i) with replacement ii) with out replacement
b) All the balls are of different colour.
c) The balls are drawn in the order red, white, blue. Each ball is
i) Replaced ii) not replaced
Solution :
Let R = red ball , W = white ball, and B = blue ball.
a . i) If each ball is replaced, then are independent.
P( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .
ii ) If each ball is not replaced, then are dependent.
P( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .
( ) ( ) ( )
b. ( ) .
( )
c . i) If each ball is replaced, then are independent.
P( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .
Ii ) If each ball is not replaced, then are dependent.
P( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) .
Note :
1. Multiplication rule 1 can be extended to three or more independent events by using the formula:
P( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

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 2. Multiplication rule 1 can be extended to three or more independent events by using the formula:
P( ) ( ) ( ) ( ) ( )

Probability using tree diagram and table

Example 1 :

Exercise 8.24
1 . If two cards are selected from a standard deck of 52 cards without replacement , find these
probability:
a . both are spade b . both are the same suit c . both are king
2 . three cards are drawn from an ordinary deck and not replaced. Find the probability of these
events.
a . getting 3 jacks b . getting an ace, a king and a queen in order.
c . getting a club, a spade and a heart in order. d . getting 3 clubs

Example 1:

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Exercise 8.26

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