Hamming code
■ The most commonly used error correction technique
is Hamming code.
■ In this technique multiple parity bits are inserted
into the data block before transmission
■ These codes originally designed with dmin=3 which
means they can detect up to 2 errors or correct one
single error.
■ Now we find relationship between
n & k in a Hamming code
We need to choose an integer m>=3 so that values
of n & k calculated from m
n=(2 power m) -1
k=n-m
For example m=3 , n=7 , k =4
The Hamming code C(7,4) with dmin=3
Hamming code C(7, 4)
10.3
The structure of the encoder and decoder for a Hamming code
10.4
■ A copy of 4 bit data word is fed into the generator that creates 3
parity checks r0, r1 and r2 as shown below
r0 =a2+a1+a0 (modulo-2)
r1 =a3+a2+a1 (modulo-2)
r2 =a1+a0+a3 (modulo-2)
Each parity bit handles 3 out of 4 bits of the data word.
10.5
■ The checker in the decoder creates a 3 bit
syndrome(S2, S1,S0) in which each bit is parity check
for 4 out of 7 bits in the received code.
S0 =b2+b1+b0+q0 (modulo-2)
S1 =b3+b2+b1+q1 (modulo-2)
S2 =b1+b0+b3 +q2 (modulo-2)
10.6
■ The equations used by the checker are same as those used by
generator with the parity check bits added to the right-hand
side
■ The 3 bit syndrome(S0,S1,S2) creates 8 different bit
patterns(000 to 111)that can represent 8 different conditions.
■ These conditions define lack of error or an error in 1 of the 7
bits of the received code word
Logical decision made by the correction logic analyzer
10.7
Syndrome values in table are based on the syndrome
bit calculations.
■ For example if q0 is in error s0 is the only bit
affected ; the syndrome therefore is 001( s2=0,s1=0 s0=1)
■ if b2 is in error S0 & S1 is the only bit affected ; the
syndrome therefore is 011 ( s2=0,s1=1 s0=1)
■ Similarly b1 is in error all 3 syndrome bits are
affected and the syndrome is 111.
S0 =b2+b1+b0+q0 (modulo-2)
S1 =b3+b2+b1+q1 (modulo-2)
S2 =b1+b0+b3 +q2 (modulo-2)
10.8
Example
Let us trace the path of data words from the sender to the
destination:
1.The data word 0100 (a3=0, a2=1,a1=0 ,a0=0) becomes the codeword
0100011. The codeword 0100011 is received. The syndrome is 000,
the final data word is 0100.
r0 =a2+a1+a0(modulo-2)
r1 =a3+a2+a1 (modulo-2)
r2 =a1+a0+a3 (modulo-2)
S0=b2+b1+b0+q0 (modulo-2)
S1 =b3+b2+b1+q1 (modulo-2)
S2 =b1+b0+b3 +q2 (modulo-2)
10.9
■ The data word 0111 becomes the codeword
0111001.The codeword 0011001 is received. The
syndrome is 011. b2 is in error. After flipping
b2(changing 1 to 0),the final data word is 0111
■ 0111001
■ 0011001
10.10
CYCLIC CODES
Cyclic codes are special linear block codes with one
extra property. In a cyclic code, if a codeword is
cyclically shifted (rotated), the result is another
codeword.
10.11
Cyclic redundancy check (CRC)
■ A category of cyclic codes called the Cyclic redundancy
check is used in networks such as LAN and WANs
■ The below figure shows the CRC encoder and decoder
and shows an example table of a CRC code
10.12
CRC encoder and decoder
10.13
■ In the encoder, the data word has k bits
(4 here); the codeword has n bits (7 here).
■ The size of the dataword is augmented by
adding n - k (3 here) 0’s to the right-hand side
of the word.
■ The n-bit result is fed into the generator.
■ The generator uses a divisor of size n - k + 1 (4
here).
10.14
■ The quotient of the division is discarded; the
remainder (r2,r1,ro) is appended to the
dataword to create the codeword.
■ The decoder receives the possibly corrupted
codeword. A copy of all n bits is fed to the
checker which is a replica of the generator.
■ The remainder produced by the checker is a
syndrome of n - k (3 here) bits, which is fed to
the decision logic analyzer.
10.15
■ The analyzer has a simple function. If the
syndrome bits are all as 0’s, the 4 leftmost bits
of the codeword are accepted as the data word
(interpreted as no error); otherwise, the 4 bits
are discarded (error).
10.16
Figure 10.15 Division in CRC encoder
10.17
Figure 10.16 Division in the CRC decoder for two cases
10.18
■ Consider the CRC generator is x7 + x6 +
x4 + x3 + x + 1.
10.19
■ Example 1
■ A bit stream 1101011011 is transmitted using the
standard CRC method. The generator polynomial is
x4+x+1. What is the actual bit string transmitted?
■ The generator polynomial G(x) = x4 + x + 1 is encoded
as 10011.
■ Clearly, the generator polynomial consists of 5 bits.
■ So, a string of 4 zeroes is appended to the bit stream to
be transmitted.
■ The resulting bit stream is 11010110110000.
10.21
■ Example 2
■ A bit stream 10011101 is transmitted using the
standard CRC method. The generator polynomial
is x3+1.
■ The generator polynomial G(x) = x3 + 1 is
encoded as 1001.
■ Clearly, the generator polynomial consists of 4
bits.
■ So, a string of 3 zeroes is appended to the bit
stream to be transmitted.
■ The resulting bit stream is 10011101000.
10.22
according to the question, Third bit from the left gets inverted during transmission.
So, the bit stream received by the receiver = 10111101100
10.23
