Chapter: Learning (Psychology)
Full Lecture Note for Exam Preparation
1. Definition of Learning
Learning is defined as a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs as a result of
experience, practice, or training. It is not caused by temporary factors like fatigue or drugs.
• It involves acquiring knowledge, skills, values, attitudes, and understanding.
• Learning happens through interaction with the environment, observation, and
conditioning.
2. Elements of Learning
Learning does not occur randomly. It involves specific elements that support the process:
a) Problem
Learning usually begins with a problem or a situation where the individual doesn’t know
what to do. This creates a need to learn.
b) Motivation
The inner drive or force that pushes an individual to act or respond to a problem. Without
motivation, learning does not take place effectively.
c) Repetition/Practice
Repeated attempts help make responses more accurate, faster, and automatic. "Practice
makes perfect" applies here.
d) Reinforcement
This refers to reward or punishment that strengthens or weakens a response.
• Positive reinforcement encourages repetition (e.g., praise for a correct answer).
• Negative reinforcement removes something unpleasant after a correct response.
e) Association
When a learner connects new information with existing knowledge, learning becomes
more meaningful and permanent.
f) Stimulus-Stimulus Association (S-S)
When two stimuli are repeatedly presented together, the learner associates them (e.g., bell
+ food = salivation in Pavlov’s experiment).
g) Stimulus-Response Association (S-R)
When a particular stimulus leads to a specific response, the brain learns the connection
(e.g., seeing a question → writing an answer).
h) Contiguity
Refers to the closeness in time between the stimulus and response. The quicker the
response after the stimulus, the stronger the learning.
i) Observation
Learning by watching others perform actions and mimicking them. Very common in
childhood.
j) Maturation
Certain learning depends on mental and physical growth. A child can’t learn to walk or talk
before reaching the proper stage of maturity.
3. Types of Learning
A. Area-Based Learning
1. Verbal Learning:
Learning related to language, words, reading, writing, and speaking. Essential for
communication and education.
2. Motor Learning:
Learning that involves muscular coordination (e.g., typing, riding a bicycle, playing a
musical instrument).
3. Concept Learning:
Understanding ideas or categories such as justice, love, democracy, or gravity.
Abstract and requires reasoning.
4. Problem Learning:
Learning to solve problems using logic, strategy, and past experience.
5. Social Learning:
Learning how to behave in society through observation, imitation, and interaction
with others.
B. Theory-Based Learning
1. Trial and Error Learning:
Learning by trying different methods until success is achieved.
2. Classical Conditioning:
Learning by associating two stimuli (Pavlov’s dog experiment).
3. Instrumental (Operant) Conditioning:
Learning behavior based on its consequences — reward or punishment (B.F.
Skinner).
4. Theories of Learning
A. Trial and Error Theory (E.L. Thorndike)
• Learning occurs through repeated attempts.
• Unsuccessful responses are discarded; successful ones are repeated.
• Introduced the Laws of Learning (covered later).
Example: A cat in a puzzle box learns to open the door by accidentally pressing a lever.
B. Gestalt Theory (Kohler)
• Focuses on insightful learning, where a solution appears suddenly after
understanding the entire problem.
• Emphasizes whole perception, not just parts.
Example: A chimpanzee suddenly understands how to use sticks to get a banana.
C. Conditional Reflex Theory (Pavlov & Watson)
• Also known as Classical Conditioning.
• A neutral stimulus becomes meaningful through repetition and association with an
unconditioned stimulus.
Example: Pavlov’s dog learns to salivate when it hears a bell because it expects food.
5. Learning in Advertising Programs
Advertisers apply learning principles to influence consumer behavior:
• Problem: Ads create a desire or need for a product.
• Motivation: Emotional triggers (fear, happiness, desire).
• Repetition: Repeated exposure makes the ad message familiar and memorable.
• Reinforcement: Promotions, discounts, or positive experiences strengthen loyalty.
• S-S Association: Brand is associated with positive images or celebrities.
6. Thorndike’s Main Laws of Learning
1. Law of Exercise
More a behavior is repeated, the stronger the learning.
2. Law of Effect
Behavior followed by satisfaction is repeated; behavior followed by discomfort is not.
3. Law of Readiness
Learning is effective when the learner is mentally and physically ready to learn.
7. Other Laws of Learning
1. Law of Multiple Response:
A learner tries several responses to solve a problem.
2. Law of Attitude/Set/Disposition:
Learning is influenced by the learner’s mental attitude or expectation.
3. Law of Partial Activity:
The learner must actively participate in the learning process.
4. Law of Assimilation:
New learning is easier if it connects with previous knowledge.
5. Law of Associative Shifting:
A behavior can be transferred from one stimulus to another through gradual steps.
8. Comparison Between Human and Animal Learning
Aspect Human Learning Animal Learning
High intelligence, can use Limited intelligence, no formal
Intelligence & Language
complex language language
Insight Can learn through sudden insight Rare; usually trial and error
Short-term, habit-based
Memory Strong long-term memory
memory
Thinking Abstract and logical thinking Simple, instinctive behavior
Imagination & Time Can imagine and think of Lives mainly in the present
Awareness past/future moment
Controlling Physical
Can delay or suppress needs Acts on immediate needs
Needs
Learns by watching others Limited observation and
Observation Power
effectively imitation skills
