UNIT 0 A

INTRODUCTION
History of Psychology through Timeline
Perspectives in Psychology
Biases and Social Influences
Course Materials 1
Course Materials 2
Units
Exam Structure
 HISTORY OF
PSYCHOLOGY
Timeline & Schools of Thought
Modern Psychology 1
• Structuralism (Late 1800s)
• Founder: Wilhelm Wundt
• Focus: Understanding the structure of the mind by analyzing its basic components through introspection.
• Key Contribution: Established psychology as a formal science with the first psychological laboratory in 1879.
• Decline: Criticized for its reliance on introspection, which lacked objectivity and reproducibility.
• Functionalism (Late 1800s - Early 1900s)
• Founder: William James
• Focus: How mental processes help individuals adapt to their environment, inspired by Darwin’s theory of
evolution.
• Key Contribution: Shifted focus from the structure to the purpose of mental processes, laying the groundwork
for applied psychology.
• Decline: Absorbed into later perspectives, such as behaviorism and cognitive psychology.
Modern Psychology 2
• Psychoanalysis (Early 1900s)
• Founder: Sigmund Freud
• Focus: The influence of the unconscious mind, early childhood experiences, and repressed desires on behavior.
• Key Contribution: Introduced therapeutic techniques like free association and dream analysis.
• Criticism: Lacked scientific rigor but sparked interest in the role of the unconscious.
• Behaviorism (1910s - 1950s)
• Founders: John B. Watson and B.F. Skinner
• Focus: Observable behaviors and the effects of the environment on actions, emphasizing conditioning.
• Classical Conditioning: Ivan Pavlov's work on stimulus-response relationships (1900s).
• Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner's focus on reinforcement and punishment (1930s-1940s).
• Key Contribution: Introduced experimental rigor to psychology, influencing educational practices and therapy.
• Criticism: Ignored internal mental states and emotions.
Modern Psychology 3
• Humanistic Psychology (1950s - 1960s)
• Founders: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow
• Focus: Emphasizing personal growth, free will, and self-actualization.
• Key Contribution: Developed client-centered therapy and Maslow’s hierarchy of needs.
• Criticism: Lacked empirical support and was considered overly idealistic.
• Cognitive Psychology (1950s - Present)
• Key Figures: Jean Piaget, Ulric Neisser, Noam Chomsky
• Focus: Mental processes such as perception, memory, problem-solving, and decision-making.
• Key Contribution: Revived interest in studying the mind scientifically, using experiments and
models.
• Advancement: Integration with neuroscience to create cognitive neuroscience.
Modern Psychology 4
• Biological Psychology (1950s - Present)
• Focus: The relationship between brain structure, neurochemistry, genetics, and behavior.
• Key Contribution: Developed techniques like brain imaging (e.g., fMRI, EEG) to study
brain function.
• Advancement: Shifted psychology towards a more scientific and measurable
understanding of behavior.
• Sociocultural Psychology (1960s - Present)
• Key Figures: Lev Vygotsky, Albert Bandura
• Focus: How social and cultural factors influence behavior and mental processes.
• Key Contribution: Highlighted the role of group dynamics, cultural diversity, and societal
norms.
Modern Psychology 5
• Evolutionary Psychology (1980s - Present)
• Focus: How evolutionary processes like natural selection shape behavior and mental processes.
• Key Contribution: Provides explanations for universal behaviors such as fear, aggression, and mate
selection.
• Criticism: Often criticized for speculative explanations of human behavior.
• Modern Psychology (21st Century and Beyond)
• Focus: Integration of multiple perspectives, including cognitive, biological, sociocultural, and evolutionary
approaches.
• Advancements:
• Cognitive-behavioral therapy (CBT): Combines cognitive and behavioral perspectives.
• Neuroscience: Advances in brain imaging and genetics deepen understanding.
• Positive Psychology: Focus on well-being, happiness, and resilience.
Modern Perspectives in Psychology 1
• Psychodynamic Perspective - The influence of unconscious desires, conflicts, and past
experiences.
• Rooted in the work of Sigmund Freud, this perspective explores how unconscious thoughts and
early life experiences shape behavior. Techniques like dream analysis and free association are
often used to uncover these unconscious influences.
• Behavioral Perspective - Observable behaviors and their responses to the environment.
• This perspective emphasizes learning through conditioning, which is influenced by rewards,
punishments, and observing others. Key concepts include reinforcement and punishment as
ways to shape behavior. Notable psychologists include B.F. Skinner and John B. Watson.
• Humanistic Perspective - Personal growth, free will, and self-actualization.
• This approach emphasizes the positive aspects of human nature, focusing on people’s potential
for growth and fulfillment. Pioneered by Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow, humanistic
psychology views individuals as inherently good and capable of personal growth, seeking to
achieve their best selves.
Modern Perspectives in Psychology 2
• Cognitive Perspective - Mental processes like perception, memory, problem-
solving, and thinking.
• Cognitive psychology studies how people process, store, and retrieve information.
It looks at how thoughts influence behavior and emotions, examining patterns in
thinking, decision-making, and information processing. This perspective is central
in understanding issues like memory disorders and cognitive biases.
• Biological Perspective - The physical basis of behavior, including genetics, brain
function, and neurotransmitters.
• The biological approach investigates how the brain, nervous system, and other
biological factors influence behavior. This perspective often involves studying how
brain injuries, genetics, and chemical imbalances affect mental health and
behavior.
Modern Perspectives in Psychology 3
• Evolutionary Perspective - Adaptive behaviors and mental processes passed
down through generations.
• This perspective explores how natural selection and survival of the fittest shape
behavior and mental processes. It explains behaviors as evolved responses that
helped our ancestors survive, like fear of dangerous animals or social bonding.
• Sociocultural Perspective - The impact of social interactions and cultural
background on behavior.
• This approach examines how society and culture influence behaviors, values, and
attitudes. It highlights the role of social norms, group dynamics, and cultural
diversity, explaining how different environments shape behavior and mental
processes.
Cognitive Biases
• Confirmation Bias:
• Tendency to seek, interpret, and recall information that confirms pre-existing beliefs.
• Example: Ignoring evidence that contradicts your political views.

• Hindsight Bias:
• Believing, after an event, that the outcome was predictable or inevitable.
• Example: Saying, "I knew it all along!" after a test result is revealed.

• Overconfidence:
• Overestimating one's knowledge, abilities, or predictions.
• Example: Being certain you'll ace a test without studying.

• Self-Report Bias: Inaccuracy in participants' answers due to memory issues or misrepresentation.

• Social Desirability Bias: Participants giving responses they believe are socially acceptable rather
than truthful.
• Experimenter Bias: Researchers unintentionally influence results to align with their expectations.
Social Influences
• Cultural Norms:
• Shared expectations and rules guiding behavior in a society or group.
• Example: Greeting with a bow in Japan versus a handshake in the U.S.
• Expectations:
• Beliefs about what should or will happen, influencing behavior and outcomes.
• Example: Teachers expecting high performance from students, leading to better grades
(Pygmalion Effect).
• Circumstances:
• Context and situational factors shaping behavior and decisions.
• Example: Economic hardship influencing people's spending habits.