Module 2

Pavement Materials Stone aggregates: Desirable properties, tests (Virtual) - Sieve analysis,
Specific gravity, Water absorption, Bulk density, Wet Sieve analysis, Aggregate crushing value,
Aggregate impact value, Combined Flakiness and Elongation index, Aggregate abrasion value,
Soundness of aggregate, Characteristic evaluation

Bituminous binders: Desirable properties, tests (Virtual) - Specific gravity, Penetration,

Softening Point, Ductility, Elastic recovery, Flash point, Separation, Loss on heating, Matter
soluble in trichloro ethylene, Absolute, Kinematic and Rotational Viscosity, Aging of Bitumen,
Characteristic evaluation

Bituminous paving mix: Desirable properties, tests (Virtual) - Stripping value of coarse
aggregate, Stone polishing value of coarse aggregate, Maximum specific gravity of bituminous
mix, Marshall stability & flow, Binder content, Bulk specific gravity and density, Indirect tensile
strength, Resilient Modulus (indirect tension test), Resistance of compacted asphalt mixtures
to moisture-induced damage, Characteristic evaluation

Cement: Desirable properties, tests (Virtual) - Consistency, Initial Setting Time, Final Setting
Time, Mortar Cube compressive strength, Fineness of cement, Specific gravity of cement,
Soundness of cement, Characteristic evaluation

Concrete: Desirable properties, requirements, tests (Virtual) - Workability, Compressive

Strength, Flexural strength, Characteristic evaluation

AGGREGATES

Aggregates form the major portion of pavement structure and they form the
prime materials used in pavement construction

ORIGIN

Most of the aggregates are prepared from natural rock

Gravel aggregates are obtained from river beds
Sand and fine aggregates from weathering rock
Based on the origin, natural rocks are classified as igneous, sedimentary and
metamorphic
CLASSIFICATION

The aggregates are specified based on their grain size, shape, texture and its
gradation and it is specified by various agencies like ASTM, BSI , ISI and IRC
Based on strength property, the coarse aggregates are divided into hard
aggregates and soft aggregates.
REQUIREMENTS

Aggregates have to bear stresses occurring due to the wheel loads on the
pavement. It has to resist wear due to abrasive action of traffice on the surface
course.
It should resist disintegration due to the action of weather.
PROPERTIES OF AGGREGATES

STRENGTH:

The aggregates should be strong to withstand the stresses due to traffic wheel load
Aggregates used in top layers of pavements i.e. wearing course have to be capable
of withstanding high stresses in addition to wear and tear hence should posses
resistance to crushing
Hardness
The aggregate used in surface course are subjected to constant rubbing or
abrasion due to moving traffic
They should be hard enough to resist wear due to abrasive action of traffic
Heavy wheel loads can also cause deformation on some types of pavements. The
mutual rubbing of stones is called attrition which also cause little wear in the
aggregates.

TOUGHNESS

Aggregates in pavements are subjected to impact due to moving wheel loads

Severe impact like hammering is seen when heavily loaded steel tyred vehicles
move on WBM roads
Jumping of steel tyred wheels from one stone to another cause severe impact
The magnitude of impact increases with the roughness of load surface, speed of
the vehicular characteristics.

DURABILITY
They should be durable and should resist disintegration due to action of weather
The property of the stones to withstand adverse action of weather is called
soundness
The aggregates are subjected to physical and chemical action of rain and ground
weather and hence road stones should be sound enough to withstand weathering
action

SHAPE OF AGGREGATES

Flaky and elongated aggregates will have less strength compared with cubical,
angular or rounded particles.
Rounded aggregates are preferred in cement concrete mix due to better
workability whereas these materials are not preferred in granular base course,
WBM and bitumen construction. In such cases angular particles are used.
Highly angular flaky and elongated aggregates have more voids in comparison
with rounded aggregates.

ADHESION WITH BITUMEN

The aggregates used in bituminous pavements should have less affinity with
water or else bituminous coating on the aggregate will be stripped off in presence
of water

TEST FOR ROAD AGGREGATES

1. Crushing test
2. Abrasion test
3. Impact test
4. Soundness test
5. Shape test
6. Specific gravity and water absorption test
7. Bitumen adhesion test

1.Crushing Test
One of the models in which pavement material can fail is by crushing under
compressive stress. A test is standardized by IS: 2386 part-IV and used to
determine the crushing strength of aggregates. The aggregate crushing value
provides a relative measure of resistance to crushing under gradually applied
crushing load.

The test consists of subjecting the specimen of aggregate in standard mould to a

compression test under standard load conditions (See Fig-1). Dry aggregates
passing through 12.5 mm sieves and retained 10 mm sieves are filled in a
cylindrical measure of 11.5 mm diameter and 18 cm height in three layers. Each
layer is tamped 25 times with at standard tamping rod. The test sample is weighed
and placed in the test cylinder in three layers each layer being tamped again. The
specimen is subjected to a compressive load of 40 tonnes gradually applied at the
rate of 4 tonnes per minute. Then crushed aggregates are then sieved through 2.36
mm sieve and weight of passing material (W2) is expressed as percentage of the
weight of the total sample (W1) which is the aggregate crushing value.
Aggregate crushing value = (W1/W2) *100
A value less than 10 signifies an exceptionally strong aggregate while above
35 would normally be regarded as weak aggregates.

2.Abrasion Test
Abrasion test is carried out to test the hardness property of aggregates and to
decide whether they are suitable for different pavement construction works. Los
Angeles abrasion test is a preferred one for carrying out the hardness property
and has been standardized in India (IS: 2386 part-IV).
The principle of Los Angeles abrasion test is to find the percentage wear due to
relative rubbing action between the aggregate and steel balls used as abrasive
charge.
Los Angeles machine consists of circular drum of internal diameter 700 mm and
length 520 mm mounted on horizontal axis enabling it to be rotated (see Fig-2).
An abrasive charge consisting of cast iron spherical balls of 48 mm diameters and
weight 340-445 g is placed in the cylinder along with the aggregates. The number
of the abrasive spheres varies according to the grading of the sample. The quantity
of aggregates to be used depends upon the gradation and usually ranges from 5-
10 kg. The cylinder is then locked and rotated at the speed of 30-33 rpm for a
total of 500 -1000 revolutions depending upon the gradation of aggregates.
After specified revolutions, the material is sieved through 1.7 mm sieve and
passed fraction is expressed as percentage total weight of the sample. This value
is called Los Angeles abrasion value.
A maximum value of 40 percent is allowed for WBM base course in Indian
conditions. For bituminous concrete, a maximum value of 35 percent is
specified.

3.Impact Test

The aggregate impact test is carried out to evaluate the resistance to impact of
aggregates. Aggregates passing 12.5 mm sieve and retained on 10 mm sieve is
filled in a cylindrical steel cup of internal Dia 10.2 mm and depth 5 cm which is
attached to a metal base of impact testing machine. The material is filled in 3
layers where each layer is tamped for 25 numbers of blows (see Fig-3). Metal
hammer of weight 13.5 to 14 Kg is arranged to drop with a free fall of 38.0 cm
by vertical guides and the test specimen is subjected to 15 numbers of blows. The
crushed aggregate is allowed to pass through 2.36 mm IS sieve. And the impact
value is measured as percentage of aggregates passing sieve (W2) to the total
weight of the sample (W1).
Aggregate impact value = (W2/W1) *100
Aggregates to be used for wearing course, the impact value shouldn’t exceed
30 percent. For bituminous macadam the maximum permissible value is 35
percent. For Water bound macadam base courses the maximum permissible
value defined by IRC is 40 percent.
4.Soundness test
Soundness test is intended to study the resistance of aggregates to weathering
action, by conducting accelerated weathering test cycles. The Porous aggregates
subjected to freezing and thawing is likely to disintegrate prematurely. To
ascertain the durability of such aggregates, they are subjected to an accelerated
soundness test as specified in IS: 2386 part-V.

Aggregates of specified size are subjected to cycles of alternate wetting in a

saturated solution of either sodium sulphate or magnesium sulphate for 16 – 18
hours and then dried in oven at 105 to 1100C to a constant weight. After five
cycles, the loss in weight of aggregates is determined by sieving out all undersized
particles and weighing.

The loss in weight should not exceed 12 percent when tested with sodium
sulphate and 18 percent with magnesium sulphate solution.

5.Shape Tests
The particle shape of the aggregate mass is determined by the percentage of flaky
and elongated particles in it. Aggregates which are flaky or elongated are
detrimental to higher workability and stability of mixes.
The flakiness index is defined as the percentage by weight of aggregate particles
whose least dimension is less than 0.6 times their mean size. Flakiness gauge
(see Fig-4) is used for this test. Test procedure had been standardized in India
(IS: 2386 part-I).
The elongation index of an aggregate is defined as the percentage by weight of
particles whose greatest dimension (length) is 1.8 times their mean dimension.
This test is applicable to aggregates larger than 6.3 mm. Elongation gauge (see
Fig-5) is used for this test. This test is also specified in (IS: 2386 Part-I).
However there are no recognized limits for the elongation index.

6.Specific Gravity and Water Absorption

The specific gravity and water absorption of aggregates are important properties
that are required for the design of concrete and bituminous mixes. The specific
gravity of a solid is the ratio of its mass to that of an equal volume of distilled
water at a specified temperature. Because the aggregates may contain water-
permeable voids, so two measures of specific gravity of aggregates are used:
1. Apparent specific gravity and
2. Bulk specific gravity.
Apparent Specific Gravity, Gapp, is computed on the basis of the net volume
of aggregates i.e the volume excluding water-permeable voids. Thus
Gapp = [(MD/VN)]/W
Where,
MD is the dry mass of the aggregate,
VN is the net volume of the aggregates excluding the volume of the absorbed
matter,
W is the density of water.
Bulk Specific Gravity, Gbulk, is computed on the basis of the total volume of
aggregates including water permeable voids. Thus
Gbulk = [(MD/VB)]/W

Where,
VB is the total volume of the aggregates including the volume of absorbed
water.
Water Absorption: The difference between the apparent and bulk specific
gravities is nothing but the water permeable voids of the aggregates. We can
measure the volume of such voids by weighing the aggregates dry and in
a saturated surface dry condition, with all permeable voids filled with water.
The difference of the above two is MW.
MW is the weight of dry aggregates minus weight of aggregates saturated
surface dry condition. Thus,
Water Absorption = (MW/MD)*100
The specific gravity of aggregates normally used in road construction ranges
from about 2.5 to 2.9. Water absorption values ranges from 0.1 to about 2.0
percent for aggregates normally used in road surfacing.

7.Bitumen Adhesion Test

Bitumen adheres well to all normal types of road aggregates provided they are
dry and free from dust. In the absence of water there is practically no adhesion
problem of bituminous construction.
Adhesion problem occurs when the aggregate is wet and cold. This problem can
be dealt with by removing moisture from the aggregate by drying and increasing
the mixing temperature. Further, the presence of water causes stripping of
binder from the coated aggregates. This problem occurs when bitumen mixture
is permeable to water.
Several laboratory tests are conducted to arbitrarily determine the adhesion of
bitumen binder to an aggregate in the presence of water. Static immersion test is
one specified by IRC and is quite simple. The principle of the test is by
immersing aggregate fully coated with binder in water maintained at 400C
temperature for 24 hours.
IRC has specified maximum stripping value of aggregates should not exceed
5%.

AGGREGATE GRADATION
Aggregate Grading - is a measure of how well distributed the sizes of the
particles in an aggregate are. A well graded aggregate will have a good range of
particle sizes and will have a fair representation from every size of particle
Gradation of Aggregates

Definition

The particle size distribution of an aggregate as determined by sieve analysis is

termed as gradation of aggregates. If all the particles of an aggregate are of
uniform size, the compacted mass will contain more voids whereas aggregate
comprising particles of various sizes will give a mass with lesser voids.The
particle size distribution of a mass of aggregate should be such that the smaller
particles fill the voids between the larger particles. The proper grading of an
aggregate produces dense concrete and needs less quantity of fine aggregate and
cement waste, therefore, it is essential that coarse and fine aggregates be well
graded to produce quality concrete.

Grading limits and maximum aggregate size are specified because these
properties affect the amount of aggregate used as well as cement and water
requirements, workability, pumpability, and durability of concrete. In general, if
the water-cement ratio is chosen correctly, a wide range in grading can be used
without a major effect on strength.

The Grading Curve of Aggregates

The grading of aggregates is represented in the form of a curve or an S-CURVE.

The curve showing the cumulative percentages of the material passing the sieves
represented on the ordinate with the sieve openings to the logarithmic scale
represented on the abscissa is termed as Grading Curve. The grading curve for a
particular sample indicates whether the grading of a given sample conforms to
that specified, or it is too coarse or too fine, or deficient in a particular size.

Types of Grading of Aggregates

1. Dense-or well-graded aggregate – Has gradation close to the FWHA

maximum density grading curve.
 2. Gap-graded aggregate – Has only a small percentage of particles in the
mid-size range.
3. Uniformly graded aggregate – Composed mostly of particles of the same
size.
4. Open-graded aggregate – Contains only a small percentage of small-size
particles.
UNIFORM GRADED AGGREGATE

It refers to a gradation that contains most of the particles in a very narrow size
range. In essence, all the particles are the same size. The curve is steep and only
occupies the narrow size range specified.

1. Narrow range of sizes.

2. Grain-to-grain contact.
3. High void content.
4. High permeability.
5. Low stability.
6. Difficult to compact.
OPEN GRADED AGGREGATE

In this type of gradation of aggregates, only a small percentage of aggregate

particles are in the small range. This results in more air voids because there are
not enough small particles to fill in the voids between the larger particles. The
curve is near vertical in the mid-size range, and flat and near-zero in the small-
size range.

GAP GRADED AGGREGATE

Gap-graded aggregate contains only a small percentage of aggregate particles in

the mid-size range. The curve is flat in the mid-size range. Some PCC mix
designs use gap graded aggregate to provide a more economical mix since less
sand can be used for a given workability. When gap-graded aggregate are
specified, certain particle sizes of aggregate are omitted from the size continuum.
Gap-graded aggregate are used to obtain uniform textures in exposed aggregate
concrete. Close control of mix proportions is necessary to avoid segregation.

1. Missing middle sizes.

2. No grain-to-grain contact.
3. Moderate void content.
4. Moderate permeability.
5. Low stability.
6. Easy to compact.
DENSE GRADED AGGREGATE

A dense gradation refers to a sample that is approximately of equal amounts of

various sizes of aggregate. By having a dense gradation, most of the air voids
between the materials are filled with particles. A dense gradation will result in an
even curve on the gradation graph.

1. Wide range of sizes.

2. Grain-to-grain contact.
3. Low void content.
4. Low permeability.
5. High stability.
6. Difficult to compact.

PROPORTIONING OF AGGREGATES
The principle of proportioning of aggregates is that the smaller particles will fill
up the voids between large particles.
Concrete mixtures are proportioned to have required workability and to assure
that the hardened concrete will have the required properties. A concrete mix
having excessive coarse aggregate lacks sufficient mortar to fill the void system,
resulting in a non-cohesive and harsh mix

After selecting the aggregates and their gradation, proportioning of aggregates

has to be done and following are the common methods of proportioning of
aggregates.

1. Trial and error procedure: vary the proportion of materials untill the
required aggregate gradation is achieved.
2. Graphical Methods: Two graphical methods in common use for
proportioning of aggregates are, triangular chart method are Rotfuch’s
method. The former is used when only three materials are to be mixed.

BITUMEN AND TAR

ORIGIN :
The first is where it occurs naturally — normally found in the mud at the
bottom of lakes and other water sources. Naturally occurring bitumen can be
found all over the world, with the largest deposit being in Canada. The second
source of bitumen is where it's derived from existing sources of petroleum.
Asphalt, also known as bitumen, is a naturally occurring material, similar to
crude petroleum. Like petroleum, asphalt is a hydrocarbon made of the
remnants of long-dead living organisms, such as algae.

There are two primary sources of bitumen. The first is where it occurs naturally
— normally found in the mud at the bottom of lakes and other water sources.
Naturally occurring bitumen can be found all over the world, with the largest
deposit being in Canada. The second source of bitumen is where it’s derived
from existing sources of petroleum.

Once, naturally occurring bitumen was the most common used form of the
material. However, because petroleum-derived bitumen is normally much purer
than naturally occurring bitumen and can be made in much greater quantities at
a lower cost, it has become much more common to use the artificial form.

Bitumen has become extremely common in our day-to-day lives. We see it

every day: when we drive to work, when we walk our dogs, when we get home
from school. It’s become such a ubiquitous part of civilization that it’s easy to
forget that it’s even there. But asphalt has a long history that stretches back
thousands of years.

Bitumen Production – Manufacturing Process of Bitumen in Details

Generally, there are 4 different ways of producing bitumen. These methods are
Straight Run, Air Blowing, Deasphalting, and Blending.
Air Blowing is the most common way.
Let’s take a look at the process of bitumen production in this article. Before
that, read the infographic and watch the video below to get a better
understanding of bitumen production.

What kind of crude oil is suitable for producing bitumen?

The raw material for producing bitumen is extracted from crude oil. But which
type?
Crude oil with a specific gravity greater than 0.9 is suitable for producing
bitumen. Because they have a suitable amount of heavy molecules. They
include asphaltene and maltene which have a key role in bitumen production.
Please refer to the following of this article for more explanations.
Generally, oil with such characteristics has the potential to produce 20-50%
bitumen.
Also, these crude oils have a sulfur content of more than 1 weight percentage.
Sulfur has a key role in polymerization and raises the viscosity of the bitumen.
Note: Sometimes proper crude oil is obtained by blending different types of
them.

Bitumen Production Feedstock

As mentioned before, bitumen is obtained from crude oil. Crude oil is a mixture
of different materials which have different boiling points. As a result, for the
separation process, distillation towers are used.
Crude oil enters the tower and is heated.
Heating leads to the separation of crude oil components in order to their boiling
point. In general, components with lower boiling points separate sooner. The
vapors of these lighter components are collected in specific trays placed at
various heights in the distillation tower.
The heaviest components with high boiling points remain at the bottom of the
distillation tower.
There are two types of distillation towers:
* Atmospheric: Crude oil is heated in the presence of atmospheric pressure.
* Vacuum: The residue of the atmospheric tower is heated below atmospheric
pressure (near-vacuum condition).
The residue of the atmospheric distillation tower is called the long residue.
Long residue can not be heated at very high temperatures. Heating causes a
reaction between oxygen and long residue then coke is produced.
As a result, it is taken to the vacuum distillation tower to produce more products
at higher temperatures without damaging long residue.
Bitumen is produced from the residue of a vacuum distillation tower. It is called
short residue or vacuum bottom.
Occasionally, the long residue or a combination of different short and long
residues is also used.
It should be noted that a suitable penetration for short residue or vacuum bottom
is between 35-300 dmm (deci-millimeter)

Bitumen Production Methods

There are several processes for producing bitumen that are described below.
1-Straight Run
Sometimes vacuum bottom or short residue has the bitumen property. It means
that it has reasonable penetration and viscosity.
It directly can be used as bitumen, especially in paving work.
But most often, vacuum bottoms need to go through different production stages.
2-Air Blowing
The primary way of producing bitumen is air blowing. This process includes
different ways that are explained in detail in the following.
In this method air at the desired and almost constant temperature range blows
through the feedstock (vacuum bottom).
The aim of air blowing is to produce Asphaltene molecules, which increase the
viscosity of the bitumen.
Air blowing results in the generation of Ester molecules which leads to the
generation of larger molecules (polymerization process).
Oxygen atoms bond two different molecules. As a result, heavier molecules and
asphaltene are generated.
Oxygen molecules react with the vacuum bottom. This causes the bond between
Hydrogen and Carbon atoms to be separated and cyclic molecules to be
generated (hydrogenation process).
During air blowing, the penetration of the vacuum bottom is decreased, and/or
its softening point is increased.
Blowing is done in different ways, which are explained below.
A) Semi-Blowing or Air Rectification
The semi-blowing process can be applied in two methods; Batch blowing or
Continuous blowing.

Batch Blowing

In this process, a certain volume of feedstock must be heated before entering the
reactor.
Depending on the degree of penetration and viscosity of the demanded product,
blowing lasts between 3 to 24 hours.
During air blowing, oxidation reactions occur which lead to an increase in
temperature. As a result, a cooling system is used in the tower to keep the
temperature constant.

Continuous Blowing
 In Continuous blowing, the vacuum bottom enters the reactor with a constant
flow rate.
The blowing temperature in the reactor is constant in a particular range.
The temperature of the fresh feed is lower than the operating temperature. But
the heat of the blowing process and oxidation reaction causes the bitumen to
heat up.
The advantages of the continuous method over the batch process are:
1. Increasing the production of bitumen per unit of time.
2. Reducing the preheating cost of the vacuum bottom before entering the reactor.
3. Due to its continuous nature, it is easy to control and process.
B) Fully Air Blowing
In a fully blown process, the air is blown through the feedstock more than in the
semi-blown method.
It applies upon a blend of a vacuum bottom with a relatively low viscosity
property to reach oxidized bitumen.
The amount of blowing that is required, depends on the temperature in the
column and the air-to-feed ratio.
3-Solvent Deasphalting
One of the methods of bitumen production is to modify the vacuum bottom in
propane deasphalting units.
In these units, the vacuum bottom is mixed with propane (sometimes butane)
then de-asphaltene oil is extracted from it.
At the end of the process, the remaining product is bitumen.
There are some differences between this bitumen and refined bitumen from the
same feedstock.
Propane deasphalting causes the reduction of residue further. Also, dependent
on crude oil properties, this method can produce a bituminous product that has:

1. Lower viscosity
2. Higher ductility
3. Better temperature resistance than other bitumen
Usually, this process is used on crude oil with a low content of heavy
molecules.
4-Blending
Blending is not the direct method of producing bitumen. However, sometimes,
it is used to achieve bitumen with desired properties.
Several types of bitumen are mixed together in order to obtain bitumen with the
preferred properties.
For example, penetration bitumen 40/50 is combined with penetration bitumen
200/300 to obtain the desired bitumen with a similar penetration to bitumen
80/100.

PROPERTIES OF BITUMEN

Different properties of bitumen depend upon its different ingredients. These

properties include adhesion, water resistance, viscosity, hardness, ductility
durability, specific gravity, softening point etc

Following are the properties of Bitumen

1. Adhesion
2. Resistance to Water
3. Hardness
4. Viscosity and Flow
5. Softening Point
6. Ductility
7. Specific Gravity
8. Durability
9. Versatility
10. Economical
11. Strength

Adhesion:

The adhesive property of bitumen binds together all the components without
bringing about any positive or negative changes in their properties. Bitumen has
the ability to adhere to a solid surface in a fluid state depending on the nature of
the surface. The presence of water on the surface will prevent adhesion.

Resistance to Water:

Bitumen is insoluble in water and can serve as an effective sealant Bitumen is

water resistant. Under some conditions water may be absorbed by minute
quantities of inorganic salts in the bitumen or filler in it.

To measure the hardness of bitumen, the penetration test is conducted, which

measures the depth of penetration in tenths of mm. of a weighted needle in
bitumen after a given time, at a known temperature. Commonly a weight of 100
gm is applied for 5 sec at a temperature of 77 °F. The penetration is a measure
of hardness. Typical results are 10 for hard coating asphalt, 15 to 40 for roofing
asphalt and up to 100 or more for water proofing bitumen.
The grades with penetrations greater than 40 are mostly used in road
construction and occasionally in industrial applications. The grades with
penetrations less than 40 are used exclusively in industrial applications. In hot
climate lower grades such as 60/70 is used

Viscosity and Flow:

The viscous or flow properties of bitumen are of importance both at high

temperature during processing and application and at low temperature to which
bitumen is subjected during service. The flow properties of bitumens vary
considerably with temperature and stress conditions. Deterioration, or loss of
the desirable properties of bitumen, takes the form of hardening. Resultantly,
decrease in adhesive and flow properties and an increase in the softening point
temperature and coefficient of thermal expansion.

Softening point:

This property makes us to know whether given bitumen can be used at the
particular place i.e. softening point value should be higher than pavement
temperature otherwise bitumen present in the layer get soften and come out.

Softening point is the temperature at which a steel ball falls a known distance
through the bitumen when the test assembly is heated at a known rate. Usually
the test consists of a (3/8) in dia. steel ball, weight 3.5 gm, which is allowed to
sink through a (5/8) in dia, (1/4) in thick disk of bitumen in a brass ring. The
whole assembly is heated at a rate of 9 °F per min. Typical values would be 240
°F for coating grade asphalts, 140 °F to 220 °F for roofing asphalt and down to
115 °F for bituminous water proofing material.

Ductility:

Ductility test is conducted to determine the amount bitumen will stretch at

temperature below its softening point. A briquette having a cross-sectional area
of 1 in2 is placed in a tester at 77 °F. Ductility values range from 0 to over 150
depending on the type of bitumen.

Presence of ductility means the formation of the film and coating would be
proper.

Durability:

Bitumen durability refers to the long-term resistance to oxidative hardening of

the Material in the field. Although, in-service, all bitumens harden with time
through reaction.
With oxygen in the air, excessive rates of hardening (poor durability) can lead to
premature binder embrittlement and surfacing failure resulting in cracking and
chip loss. Bitumen lives upto twenty years if maintained properly throughout the
pavement life.

Versatility:

Due to versatility property of Bitumen it is relatively easy to use it in many

applications because of its thermoplastic property. It can be spread easily along
the underlying pavement layers as it liquefies when heated making the job easier
and hardens in a solid mass when cooled.

Economical:

It is available in cheaper rates almost all over the world which makes it feasible
and affordable in many applications.

Strength:

Though the coarse aggregates are the main load bearing component in a
pavement, bitumen or asphalt also play a vital role in distributing the traffic loads
to the layers beneath.

General Properties of Bitumen

• Most bitumens are colloidal in nature.

• Bitumen are thermoplastics.
• They have no specific melting, boiling or freezing point.
• Bitumens are insoluble in water.
• They are highly impermeable to the passage of water.
• They are generally hydrophobic.They are chemically inert.
• Bitumen oxidises slowly.

Requirements of bitumen
The desirable properties of bitumen depend on the mix type and construction. In
general, bitumen should posses following desirable properties.
1. The bitumen should not be highly temperature susceptible: during the
hottest weather the mix should not become too soft or unstable, and during
cold weather the mix should not become too brittle causing cracks.
2. The viscosity of the bitumen at the time of mixing and compaction should
be adequate. This can be achieved by use of cutbacks or emulsions of
suitable grades or by heating the bitumen and aggregates prior to mixing
 3. There should be adequate affinity and adhesion between the bitumen and
aggregates used in the mix

Composition of Bitumen

Materials in bituminous family are:

1) Tar:

Coal tar is a brown or dark black liquid of high viscosity, which smells of
naphthalene and aromatic hydrocarbons. Being flammable, coal tar is sometime
used for heating or to fire boilers. It can be used in coal tar soap, and is used in
medicated shampoo to kill and repel head lice, and as a treatment for dandruff.

Depending upon its source of origin, TAR is classified as:

2) Coal Tar:

It is the liquid by-product of the distillation of coal to make coke. The gaseous
by-product of this process is commonly known as town gas. It is used for
coating of wooden poles and sleepers, iron poles.

3) Wood Tar:

It is obtained by the distillation of resinous wood. Wood tar contains creosote

and as such has strong preservative properties. Search for "resin" in the above
search box.

4) Mineral Tar:

It is obtained by the distillation of bituminous shale.

5) Coal Tar Pitch:

It is the residue of the direct distillation of crude tar produced by the high
temperature carbonization of coal. It is used as a water proofing compound in
masonry, steel and timber structure. It is also used for water
proofing concrete structures.

Chemical Composition of Bitumen:

 Molecular weight wise, bitumen is a mixture of about 300 - 2000 chemical
components, with an average of around 500 - 700. Elementally, it is around
95% carbon and hydrogen (± 87% carbon and ± 8% hydrogen), and up to 5%
sulfur, 1% nitrogen, 1% oxygen and 2000ppm metals. Bitumens are composed
mainly of highly condensed polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons. They also
contain several elements, a number of which are toxic.

Chemical Components in bitumen are:

1. Asphaltenes
2. Resinous components (polar aromatics)
3. Non-polar aromatics (naphtene aromatics) and
4. Saturates

Specification, Bitumen Tests, and Properties of Bitumen

Bitumen is a complex material with a complex response to stress. All bitumens

show a more or less pronounced viscoelastic behavior. their resistance to
deformation being dependent on both the temperature and time during which a
force is applied. Only under extreme conditions can a bitumen behave either as a
typical elastic solid (low temperature very short loading time) or as a viscous
liquid (high temperature, long loading time). Under normal temperature
conditions, both viscous and elastic behavior play their part. Since both
temperature and loading time are variable under the conditions of practice. The
temperature and time susceptibilities of bitumen are important performance
factors. In order to characterize the numerous bitumen grades a number of test
methods have been developed. Initially, these tests aimed at measuring an
arbitrary mechanical property which made it possible to discriminate between
various bitumens. The limits between which such properties had to be well known
from practical experience. Examples of such methods of characterization and
their appropriate consistency are:
– Fraass breaking point

• brittleness
• Penetration
• semi-solid range
• Softening point
• the beginning of fluidity
• Viscosity fluidity range
• Penetration Index
• temperature susceptibility
 There are no universally accepted specifications for bitumen, cutback bitumen,
or bitumen emulsions. The text here discusses specifications in relation to the
relevant British Standards: however, other bitumen specifications are
acknowledged to be equally valid, differing only in the specification tests detailed
or the test ranges for the various different grades. In Europe, the national
specifications for bitumen are in the process of being consolidated into a unified
CEN specification, whilst in much of the world, the ASTM specifications are
commonly used. Most bitumen specifications have a degree of commonality
centering around the use of penetration and softening point values, whilst the
remaining specification properties vary

Bitumen Standards Specification Tests

As an almost infinite variety of bitumens can be manufactured, it is necessary to
have tests which can characterize different grades. The two principal tests used
most frequently to characterize bitumens are penetration and softening point.
These two tests are used to specify different grades of bitumen. Although they
are arbitrary empirical tests, it is possible to estimate from them important
engineering properties, such as high-temperature viscosity and low-temperature
stiffness. The use of the penetration test for characterizing the consistency of
bitumen dates from the late 19th century. As the penetration and softening point
tests are empirically derived it is essential that they are always carried out under
exactly the same conditions. The Institute of Petroleum (IP), the American
Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM). and British Standards (BS) publish
standard methods for testing bitumen. In many cases the methods are identical
and therefore methods are published jointly. However, some methods differ in
detail, for example, the IP and ASTM softening point method, and in these cases,
a correction factor must be applied to relate test results obtained using these two
test methods. The majority of the methods quote limits for assessing the
acceptability of test results. Precision data for results obtained by a single operator
(repeatability) and by different operators in different laboratories
(reproducibility) are specified. Thus tolerance is given to allow for differences
between operators and equipment at different locations.

Bitumen Tests
There are a number of tests to assess the properties of bituminous materials. The
following tests are usually conducted to evaluate different properties of
bituminous materials.

• Penetration test
• Ductility test
• Softening point test
• Specific gravity test
• Viscosity test
• Flash and Fire point test
• Float test
• Water content test
• Loss on heating test

Bitumen Tests- Penetration Test

It measures the hardness or softness of bitumen by measuring the depth in tenths
of a millimeter to which a standard loaded needle will penetrate vertically
in 5 seconds. BIS had standardised the equipment and test procedure. The
penetrometer consists of a needle assembly with a total weight of 100g and a
device for releasing and locking in any position. The bitumen is softened to a
pouring consistency, stirred thoroughly and poured into containers at a depth at
least 15 mm in excess of the expected penetration. The test should be conducted
at a specified temperature of 25 C. It may be noted that penetration value is
largely influenced by any inaccuracy with regards to pouring temperature, size of
the needle, weight placed on the needle and the test temperature. A grade
of 40/50 bitumen means the penetration value is in the range 40 to 50 at standard
test conditions. In hot climates, a lower penetration grade is preferred.
Figure shows a schematic Penetration Test setup.

Bitumen Tests- Ductility Test

Ductility is the property of bitumen that permits it to undergo great deformation
or elongation. Ductility is defined as the distance in cm, to which a standard
sample or briquette of the material will be elongated without breaking. The
dimension of the briquette thus formed is exactly 1 cm square. The bitumen
sample is heated and poured in the mould assembly placed on a plate. These
samples with moulds are cooled in the air and then in the water bath at 27 C
temperature. The excess bitumen is cut and the surface is leveled using a hot
knife. Then the mould with the assembly containing sample is kept in the water
bath of the ductility machine for about 90 minutes. The sides of the moulds are
removed, the clips are hooked on the machine and the machine is operated. The
distance up to the point of the breaking of thread is the ductility value which is
reported in cm. The ductility value gets affected by factors such as pouring
temperature, test temperature, the rate of pulling etc. A minimum ductility value
of 75 cm has been specified by the BIS. Figure shows ductility moulds to be
filled with bitumen.

Bitumen Tests- Softening Point Test

Softening point denotes the temperature at which the bitumen attains a particular
degree of softening under the specifications of test. The test is conducted by using
Ring and Ball apparatus. A brass ring containing test sample of bitumen is
suspended in liquid like water or glycerin at a given temperature. A steel ball is
placed upon the bitumen sample and the liquid medium is heated at a rate of 5 C
per minute. Temperature is noted when the softened bitumen touches the metal
plate which is at a specified distance below. Generally, higher softening point
indicates lower temperature susceptibility and is preferred in hot climates.
Figure shows Softening Point test setup.
Bitumen Tests- Specific gravity Test
In paving jobs, to classify a binder, density property is of great use. In most
cases, bitumen is weighed, but when used with aggregates, the bitumen is
converted to volume using density values. The density of bitumen is greatly
influenced by its chemical composition. Increase in aromatic type mineral
impurities causes an increase in specific gravity.
The specific gravity of bitumen is defined as the ratio of the mass of given
volume of bitumen of known content to the mass of the equal volume of water
at 27 C. The specific gravity can be measured using either pycnometer or
preparing a cube specimen of bitumen in the semi-solid or solid state. The
specific gravity of bitumen varies from 0.97 to 1.02
Bitumen Tests- Viscosity Test
Viscosity denotes the fluid property of the bituminous material and it is a measure
of resistance to flow. At the application temperature, this characteristic greatly
influences the strength of resulting paving mixes. Low or high viscosity during
compaction or mixing has been observed to result in lower stability values. At
high viscosity, it resists the compactive effort and thereby resulting mix is
heterogeneous, hence low stability values. And at low viscosity instead of
providing a uniform film over aggregates, it will lubricate the aggregate particles.
Orifice type viscometers are used to indirectly find the viscosity of liquid binders
like cutbacks and emulsions. The viscosity expressed in seconds is the time taken
by the 50 ml bitumen material to pass through the orifice of a cup, under standard
test conditions and specified temperature. The viscosity of a cutback can be
measured with either 4.0 mm orifice at 25$^o$ C or 10 mm orifice at 25 or 40 C.

Bitumen Tests- Flash and Fire Point Test

At high temperatures depending upon the grades of bitumen, materials leave out
volatiles. And these volatiles catch fire which is very hazardous and therefore it
is essential to qualify this temperature for each bitumen grade. BIS defined the
flash point as the temperature at which the vapour of bitumen momentarily
catches fire in the form of flash under specified test conditions. The fire point is
defined as the lowest temperature under specified test conditions at which the
bituminous material gets ignited and burns.
Bitumen Tests- Float Test
Normally the consistency of bituminous material can be measured either by
penetration test or viscosity test. But for certain range of consistencies, these tests
are not applicable and Float test is used. The apparatus consists of an aluminum
float and a brass collar filled with bitumen to be tested. The specimen in the mould
is cooled to a temperature of 5 C and screwed in to float. The total test assembly
is floated in the water bath at 50 C and the time required for water to pass its way
through the specimen plug is noted in seconds and is expressed as the float value.
Bitumen Tests- Water Content Test
It is desirable that the bitumen contains minimum water content to prevent
foaming of the bitumen when it is heated above the boiling point of water. The
water in a bitumen is determined by mixing known weight of specimen in a pure
petroleum distillate free from water, heating, and distilling of the water. The
weight of the water condensed and collected is expressed as the percentage by
weight of the original sample. The allowable maximum water content should not
be more than 0.2% by weight.
Bitumen Tests- Loss on heating Test
When the bitumen is heated it loses the volatility and gets hardened. About 50gm
of the sample is weighed and heated to a temperature of 163 C for 5hours in a
specified oven designed for this test. The sample specimen is weighed again after
the heating period and loss in weight is expressed as the percentage by weight of
the original sample. Bitumen used in pavement mixes should not indicate more
than 1% loss in weight, but for bitumen having penetration values 150-200 up
to 2% loss in weight is allowed.
Bitumen Tests with IS Codes
 Summary
Requirements of bitumen as a binding material and its different forms were
discussed. Various tests are conducted on bitumen to assess its consistency,
gradation, viscosity, temperature susceptibility, and safety. Standard test
procedures on bitumen were also covered in this chapter.
Problems
The minimum ductility value specified by BIS for bitumen is

• 50 cm
• 25 cm
• 75 cm
• 100 cm

The allowable maximum water content in bitumen should not be more than

• 2% by weight
• 0.2% by weight
• 2.5 % by weight
• 5 % by weight

European Standard CEN Bitumen Tests

RABIT’s mission is to promote the efficient, economic, effective and safe use of
bitumen. Harmonised standards are the basis for defining the consistent and
effective specifications for the supply of bitumen across in the world. RABIT
contributes to the development of standards and test methods by participation in
CEN working groups to ensure that bitumen specifications are fit for purpose.
Various fundamental test methods are used for the technical classification and
assessment of the different bitumen types which, in the first instance, determine
the consistency of the bitumen in different temperature ranges.
Softening point – Ring and Ball method (EN 1427)
This method, under European standard EN 1427, serves to test the behaviour of
bitumen at elevated service temperatures. The temperature is determined at which
a layer of bitumen, in a brass ring, experiences a certain deformation under the
weight of a steel ball as the temperature rises. This test method has been used for
more than one hundred years.
Needle penetration (EN 1426)
A test method that has been used for decades, which is now described in EN 1426.
Needle penetration is determined by the depth, measured in 1/10 mm, to which
a 100 g needle penetrates in 5 seconds into the bitumen at a temperature of 25 °C.
It serves to test the behaviour of bitumen at intermediate service temperatures.
This test method is suitable for all types of bitumen.

Penetration Index (EN 1427)

Penetration Index is not a test method as such but obtained by calculation from
the Ring and Ball Softening Point and Needle Penetration. The calculation
formula is based on the assumption that the penetration of the binder is 800
0,1 mm at its softening point. This is correct for most conventional binders but
not for Polymer Modified and special binders. The original calculation was based
upon the determination of the needle penetration at different temperatures

Fraass breaking point (EN 12593)

The determination of the Fraass breaking point is described in the test standard
EN 12593. It describes the transition of the binder from a flexible to a brittle
condition and provides the temperature at which a thin bitumen layer on a steel
sheet cracks during uniform cooling when it is bent under defined conditions. The
test indicates the behaviour of the bitumen at low service temperatures.
Elastic recovery (EN 13398)
The test for elastic recovery is applicable to binders modified with elastomers and
serves to demonstrate the modification of the binder. The sample is stretched at a
fixed temperature and speed to a maximum of 20 cm and then severed. After a
prescribed period of time, the degree of elastic recovery is determined relative to
the original length.

Force ductility (EN 13589)

The further development of the well-known ductility test serves to determine the
cohesive characteristics of a binder, the test is used in the standard for polymer-
modified bitumen. A sample is stretched at a fixed temperature and speed and the
necessary tensile force is measured and recorded continuously. The data are used,
among other things, to calculate the deformation energy, the maximum tensile
force or the stretch length of the sample until breakage. Further options for
interpretation of the data are currently being researched and discussed.
phase angle – Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) (EN 14770)
The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) is an instrument which is used to test
bitumen properties under a variety of loading conditions and temperatures. The
DSR can apply a controlled stress to the sample and measures the response, from
which it can calculate properties such as the complex shear modulus G* and phase
angle. Testing using the DSR is described in the test method standard EN 14770.
Typically, DSR testing is conducted over a range of test temperatures and/or
loading frequencies, called temperature and frequency sweep respectively. From
the recorded data complex shear modulus G* and its phase angle (δ) at given
temperatures/frequencies are calculated.

Multiple Stress Creep and Recovery Test (MSCRT) (EN 16659)

The Dynamic Shear Rheometer (DSR) testing device is also used to perform the
Multiple Stress Creep and Recovery Test. This test method is described in the test
standard EN 16659 and addresses elastic response and sensitivity to permanent
deformation of bituminous binders as well as stress dependence. A sample of
binder is placed between two parallel plates and loaded with constant stress for
exactly 1,0 s, followed by 9,0 s without any load. Ten creep and recovery cycles
are conducted, from which the percent recovery and non-recoverable compliance
of the binder are calculated. The test uses different stress levels, hence the name;
‘Multiple-Stress Creep and Recovery Test’.

Bending Beam Rheometer (EN 14771)

The Bending Beam Rheometer (BBR) is a device to address the behaviour of
bitumen at low service temperatures and is described in the test standard
EN 14771. The sample is placed under a constant load in a liquid bath at low
temperature for a fixed duration. The creep stiffness of the sample is calculated
from the applied stress and resultant strain over time. The test provides
information on the stiffness of the binder at low temperatures and its ability to
dissipate, or relax, the stress.

Short-Term Ageing: RTFOT-Method (EN 12607-1)

The Rolling Thin Film Oven Test (RTFOT ) is a conditioning process, rather than
a test method and is described in EN 12607-1. RTFOT simulates the combined
effects of heat and air on a thin film of bituminous binder. The procedure is
intended to simulate the ageing that takes place during the mixing and
transportation process for hot mixtures. For paving grade binders a reasonable
correlation with the bitumen ageing during asphalt mix production is reported.
However, the standard conditioning parameters are not necessarily applicable to
modified binders, for which the viscosity may be too high to provide a moving
film.

Long Term Ageing: Pressure Ageing Vessel (PAV) Method (EN 14769)
As with the RTFOT, the PAV ageing is a conditioning process intended to give
information about long-term ageing susceptibility. It is usually carried out after
RTFOT-conditioning. Although there are still questions about the applicability of
this ageing procedure, due to the prolonged high-temperature experienced by the
binder, PAV is the current reference long-term ageing procedure used in Europe
& the US and is described in EN 14679. The sample is subjected to high air
pressure (2,1MPa), applied to a thin film of bituminous binder under elevated
temperature for a given time. PAV ageing is intended to simulate the degree of
age hardening that the binder will experience over several years in service
 Bituminous paving mix

Bituminous paving mix is a combination of aggregates and a binder that's

used to pave roads. It's also known as asphalt or blacktop.
What's in it?
• Aggregate: Coarse and fine aggregates, such as crushed rock, gravel, slag,
and sand
• Binder: A petroleum-based binding agent, such as bitumen, natural
bitumen, or road tar
• Filler: A fine-grained material, such as limestone dust, Portland cement, or
PFA
What's it used for?
• Bituminous paving mix is used as a surface or base layer in roads
• It's used to distribute stresses from loading and protect the underlying
layers from water
• It's used to resist cracking and permanent deformation
How's it designed?
• The mix can be well graded, open graded, gap graded, or unbounded
• The mix should be stable, durable, flexible, workable, and offer sufficient
skid resistance
• The mix should also be economical
How's it constructed?
• Bituminous paving mix is laid and compacted at ambient temperature
 Desirable properties of bituminous paving mix include:
• Durability: The ability to withstand weathering and abrasion
• Flexibility: The ability to meet traffic loads and environmental conditions
• Skid resistance: The ability to resist skidding, especially at high speeds
• Stability: The ability to withstand traffic conditions without striping or
shoving
• Adhesion: The ability to bond to aggregate surfaces
• Aggregate gradation: The gradation of the aggregate, which affects other
properties like stability and durability
• Fatigue resistance: The ability to withstand repeated loading without
fracturing
Other desirable properties of bituminous paving mix include:
• Sufficient workability for construction
• Economical mix
• Proper binding and waterproofing
• Voids to accommodate compaction due to traffic
Bituminous products are used in a variety of construction projects,
including roads, pavements, waterproofing roofs, and foundations. They
are reliable and efficient solutions for moisture control and surface
protection.