Cambridge (CIE) A Level Your notes
Biology
The Circulatory System
Contents
Circulatory Systems
The Main Blood Vessels
Observing & Drawing Blood Vessels
Blood Vessels: Structures & Functions
Cells of the Blood
The Role of Water in Circulation
Blood & Tissue Fluid
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Circulatory Systems
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Closed Double Circulatory System
The need for a circulatory system
The cells of all living organisms need a constant supply of reactants for metabolism, e.g.
oxygen and glucose
Single celled organisms can gain oxygen and glucose directly from their surroundings,
and the molecules can diffuse to all parts of the cell quickly due to short diffusion
distances
Larger organisms, however, are made up of many layers of cells, meaning that the time
taken for substances such as glucose and oxygen to diffuse to every cell in the body
would be far too long
The diffusion distances involved are too great
To solve this problem their exchange surfaces are connected to a mass transport
system, for example
The digestive system is connected to the circulatory system
The lungs are connected to the circulatory system
Mass transport is the bulk movement of gases or liquids in one direction, usually via a
system of vessels and tubes
The circulatory system in mammals is a well-studied example of a mass transport
system; the one-way flow of blood within the blood vessels carries essential nutrients
and gases to all the cells of the body
Open & closed systems
Circulatory systems are either described as being open or closed
In a closed circulatory system, blood is pumped around the body and is always
contained within a network of blood vessels
All vertebrates and many invertebrates have closed circulatory systems
In an open circulatory system, blood is not contained within blood vessels but is pumped
directly into body cavities
Organisms such as arthropods and molluscs have open circulatory systems
Humans have a closed double circulatory system: in one complete circuit of the body
blood passes through the heart (the pump) twice
The right side of the heart pumps deoxygenated blood to the lungs for gas exchange;
this is the pulmonary circulatory system
Blood then returns to the left side of the heart, so that oxygenated blood can be
pumped efficiently (at high pressure) around the body; this is the systemic circulatory
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system
The double circulatory system in mammals
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The double circulatory system in mammals showing pulmonary and systemic circulation
Main circulatory system structures table
Structure Function
Heart A hollow, muscular organ located in the chest cavity which pumps blood.
Cardiac muscle tissue is specialised for repeated involuntary contraction
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without rest.
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Arteries Blood vessels which carry blood away from the heart. The walls of the arteries
contain lots of muscle and elastic tissue and a narrow lumen, to maintain high
blood pressure. Arteries range from 0.4 - 2.5cm in diameter.
Arterioles Small arteries which branch from larger arteries and connect to capillaries.
These are around 30μm in diameter.
Capillaries Tiny blood vessels (5-10μm in diameter) which connect arterioles and
venules. Their size means they pass directly past cells and tissues and
perform gas exchange and exchange of substances such as glucose.
Venules Small veins which join capillaries to larger veins. They have a diameter of 7μm
- 1mm.
Veins Blood vessels which carry blood back towards the heart. The walls of veins
are thin in comparison to arteries, having less muscle and elastic tissue but a
wider lumen. Valves help maintain blood flow back towards the heart.
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Organisms that respire aerobically require oxygen to release energy from the
breakdown of glucose and other organic substances, but oxygen is not the only
substance that needs to be transported around an organism by a circulatory system.
Make sure you study any circulatory diagrams in the exam carefully to distinguish
between single and double circulatory systems and to discern between pulmonary
and systemic circulation.
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The Main Blood Vessels
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The Main Blood Vessels
The pulmonary and systemic circulations are features of a double circulatory system,
where blood passes through the heart twice in one full circuit around the body
The pulmonary circulatory system transports deoxygenated blood to the lungs for
gas exchange
The systemic circulatory system transports oxygenated blood to the rest of the
body
The diffusion of oxygen is reliant on:
The concentration gradients that exists between oxygen in the air in the alveoli of
the lungs and oxygen in the blood (net diffusion into red blood cells)
The concentration gradient that exists between oxygen in red blood cells and the
respiring tissues of the body (net diffusion into the mitochondria of cells)
Main blood vessels table
Blood vessel Systemic / Pulmonary Carries blood Carries Blood
circulation from blood to
Pulmonary Pulmonary Heart Lungs Deoxygenated
artery
Pulmonary Pulmonary Lungs Heart Oxygenated
vein
Aorta Systemic Heart Rest of the Oxygenated
body
Vena cava Systemic Rest of the Heart Deoxygenated
body
Worked Example
An endothelial layer of squamous cells line every blood vessel.
Which of the following is not an advantage provided by this layer of cells?
1. Reduction in friction
2. Resisting increases in blood pressure
3. Increased elasticity of the vessel
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4. Reduced damage to the blood vessel
The correct option is C, as the squamous epithelial cells do not increase elasticity.
Your notes
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Remember that although large blood vessels carry blood at a faster rate, their overall
surface area in the body is much smaller in comparison to the surface area of
capillaries. This is because there are many millions of capillaries in the body.
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Observing & Drawing Blood Vessels
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Arteries, Veins & Capillaries: Observing &
Drawing
Arteries, veins and capillaries have distinctive structures which reflect their differing
roles throughout the body
The walls of arteries and veins contain the same components; but in differing
proportions and with different wall thicknesses
The walls of the capillaries are formed from a single layer of cells
Plan diagrams show the structures of arteries and veins; these can be drawn in
transverse section (TS) and longitudinal section (LS)
Plan diagrams of an artery and a vein
A comparison of the structures of arteries and veins, along with photomicrographs
Arteries
Arteries are blood vessels that carry blood at high pressures away from the heart
Arteries have relatively thick walls which allow them to withstand the high pressure of
blood as it surges through with each ventricular contraction of the heart
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The walls of arteries are composed of elastic and muscular tissue, as well as collagen
fibres
Your notes
Arteries closer to the heart contain a higher proportion of elastic fibres – the walls of
these arteries must be able to stretch and recoil to accommodate blood surging
through, preventing them from bursting or from the blood pressure dropping
These arteries are described as being elastic
Arteries further from the heart contain less elastic and more smooth muscle tissue -
the diameter of these arteries can be adjusted to alter the blood flowing to different
tissues
These arteries are described as being muscular and they branch into smaller
arteries (arterioles)
The blood pressure in the arterioles is lower than that of the arteries
The lumen of the arteries is relatively narrow; this ensures that blood remains at
relatively high pressure for efficient delivery to the tissues whilst also providing
resistance to blood flow to allow gas exchange as blood passes through the tissues
Capillaries
Arterioles branch into the smallest blood vessel – the capillaries – which form networks
throughout most tissues of the body (where they are described as capillary beds)
Capillaries have a diameter of between 5-10 μm and most cells of the body are no more
than a few μm from one
The diameter of a typical red blood cell is 7 μm
Blood flowing through the capillaries is brought close to the cells of the body to
allow efficient exchange of materials (particularly the diffusion of oxygen)
The endothelial wall of the capillaries is only one-cell thick, which ensures that
substances can diffuse easily between the capillary and neighbouring cells
The walls are also “leaky” – there are small gaps between individual squamous
epithelial cells that form the wall to allow small substances to leak out of the blood
into the fluid surrounding the cells of the body
Veins
Capillaries join together to form larger blood vessels called venules which join to form
veins
The outer layer of the veins is relatively tough, composed largely of collagen fibres
Conversely, the middle layer of the veins is relatively thin in comparison and contains
only a small amount of smooth muscle and elastic fibre
This is because the blood flowing through veins is under very low pressures so the
walls of the veins do not have to stretch and recoil to accommodate blood flow
The lumen of veins is characteristically large
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Skeletal muscle contraction helps raise blood pressure temporarily within the veins,
and the presence of one-way valves keeps blood moving back towards the heart
Micrographs Your notes
A photomicrograph is a photograph taken of a specimen observed using a light
microscope
An electron micrograph is a photograph taken of a specimen observed using an
electron microscope
Examiner Tips and Tricks
Magnification and resolution are not the same thing; they are two features of a
microscope which determine how clear an image is. Magnification is a measure of
how much bigger the image you see is than the real object, e.g. X 10, X 100, X
500,000.Resolution is a measure of how close two objects can be before we see
them as one. The resolution of the naked eye is around 0.1mm, while the resolution of
a light microscope is around 0.2 μm and the resolution of an electron microscope is
around 0.1 - 1 nm.
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Blood Vessels: Structures & Functions
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Arteries, Veins & Capillaries: Structures &
Functions
Blood vessels structure & function table
Structure Explanation
Muscular Thicker tunica media mainly Able to perform vasoconstriction
artery composed of smooth muscle and vasodilation
Much less elastin than elastic arteries Cannot stretch and recoil
Narrow lumen Blood flows under high pressure
Elastic Thinner tunica media (compared to Gives artery the ability to stretch in
artery muscular artery) mainly composed of response to each pulse
elastin and collagen
Relatively few smooth muscle fibres Cannot perform vasoconstriction or
vasodilation
Narrow lumen Blood flows under high pressure
Vein One-way valves Close to prevent the backflow of
blood
Wide lumen Blood pressure is reduced in veins
with no surges
Less smooth muscle and elastin No need for veins to stretch and
recoil
Lots of collagen Increased strength and structure
Capillary Very small diameter Blood travels relatively slowly,
giving more opportunity for
diffusion to occur
Capillaries branch between cells Substances can diffuse quickly
between cells and the blood quickly
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Thin walls, no elastic, smooth muscle Capillaries can fit between
or collagen individual cells and diffusion is rapid
Your notes
Worked Example
The table below shows features of blood vessels.
Which row of the table is correct?
Feature of elastic Feature of muscular Feature of Feature of capillary
artery artery vein
A One-way valves Wide lumen Narrow Very small diameter
lumen
B Relatively few Tunica media Lots of No elastic, smooth
smooth muscle composed of collagen muscle or collagen
fibres smooth muscle
C Wide lumen Lots of collagen Little Tunica media
elastic composed of
collagen
D One-cell thick Narrow lumen Narrow Lots of elastic
lumen
The correct answer is B.
This is because elastic arteries do not contain many smooth muscle fibres and are not
able to perform vasoconstriction or vasodilation. In contrast, muscular arteries
contain much more smooth muscle. Veins have large amounts of collagen for
strength and keeping their shape, while capillaries are only one-cell thick and so do
not contain any elastic, smooth muscle or collagen.
Examiner Tips and Tricks
For “Explain” questions, remember to pair a description of a structural feature to an
explanation of how it helps the blood vessel to function. For example, “Capillaries are
one-cell thick, which enables quick and efficient diffusion of substances.”
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Cells of the Blood
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Cells of the Blood
Blood is a tissue composed of a number of important specialised cells
Red blood cells, monocytes, neutrophils and lymphocytes all have distinguishable
structures which enable them to be recognised on microscope slides, in
photomicrographs and in electron micrographs
Red blood cell diagram
Diagram of the structure of a red blood cell
There are approximately 5 million red blood cells per mm3 of blood
Red blood cells contain haemoglobin, a protein with a quaternary structure that
contains haem iron groups which can bind reversibly to oxygen
Distinctive features of erythrocytes when viewed under a microscope, are their
distinctive biconcave disc shape (caused by their lack of nucleus)
A diagram of a micrograph of some red blood cells
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Red blood cell micrograph
Diagram of a monocyte
A monocyte is a type of white blood cell
Monocytes are identifiable by their size – they are the largest of the leukocytes and have
a nucleus shaped like a kidney or a bean
The nucleus of monocytes tends to appear lighter after staining than other leukocytes
The nucleus should appear a light blue colour, while the chromatin inside is distinct and
fine
Monocyte micrograph diagram
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Your notes
A micrograph of a monocyte cell
Neutrophil diagram
A neutrophil is a type of white blood cell
Neutrophils are distinguished by their multi-lobed nuclei
Up to 70% of all leukocytes are neutrophils – this makes them easy to spot on a
micrograph
The granules of neutrophils typically stain pink or purple-blue
Neutrophil micrograph diagram
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Your notes
A micrograph of a neutrophil cell
Lymphocyte diagram
A lymphocyte is a type of white blood cell
Lymphocytes are small leukocytes that are identifiable by their very large nuclei, which
typically stains a dark colour
Lymphocytes constitute around 20-25% of all leukocytes
Lymphocytes are around the size of red blood cells
Lymphocyte micrograph diagram
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Your notes
A micrograph of some lymphocyte cells
Examiner Tips and Tricks
When looking at micrographs, ensure you distinguish between the kidney-shaped
nucleus of a monocyte and the multi-lobed nucleus of a neutrophil, as these can
appear similar at first. As with all things, practice is key here!
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The Role of Water in Circulation
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The Role of Water in Blood & Tissue Fluid
Solvent action
Water is the main component of blood (where it constitutes 95% of plasma, a straw-
coloured liquid) and tissue fluid
Tissue fluid is formed when plasma passes through capillaries and some of it leaks into
the spaces between the cells in the walls of the capillary. Tissue fluid is therefore mainly
water, too
Water’s properties as a solvent make it ideal for transport in mammals
For example, glucose is transported in solution from the small intestine to every cell of
the body for respiration. In addition, urea is transported in solution from the liver to the
kidneys
Specific heat capacity
Specific heat capacity is a measure of the energy required to raise the temperature of 1
kg of a substance by 1°C
Water has a high specific heat capacity of 4200 J / Kg °C – a relatively large amount of
energy is required to raise its temperature
This means that water is able to absorb a lot of heat without big temperature fluctuations
This is vital in maintaining temperatures that are optimal for enzyme activity
Water in blood plasma is also vital in transferring heat around the body, helping to
maintain a fairly constant temperature
As blood passes through more active (‘warmer’) regions of the body, heat energy is
absorbed but the temperature remains fairly constant
Water in tissue fluid also plays an important regulatory role in maintaining a constant
temperature
Worked Example
Compare and contrast the similarities and differences in the composition of tissue
fluid and blood plasma.
Blood plasma and tissue fluid are both mainly composed of water. This is because
water is a small enough molecule to pass through the gaps in the capillary walls and
into the tissue fluid. Blood plasma and tissue fluid differ because blood plasma
contains proteins, while tissue fluid does not. This is because proteins, such as
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albumin, are too large to fit between the gaps in the capillary wall and so they remain in
the blood.
Your notes
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Blood & Tissue Fluid
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Blood & tissue fluid
Plasma is a straw-coloured liquid that constitutes around 55% of the blood
Plasma is largely composed of water (95%) and because water is a good solvent, many
substances can dissolve in it, allowing them to be transported around the body
As blood passes through capillaries, some plasma leaks out through gaps in the walls of
the capillary to surround the cells of the body
This results in the formation of tissue fluid
The composition of plasma and tissue fluid are virtually the same, although tissue fluid
does not contain large proteins
Large proteins are unable to fit through gaps in the capillary walls and so remain in
the blood
Tissue fluid bathes almost all the cells of the body outside of the circulatory system
Exchange of substances between cells and the blood occurs via the tissue fluid
For example, carbon dioxide produced in aerobic respiration will leave a cell,
dissolve into the tissue fluid surrounding it, and then diffuse into the capillary
Tissue fluid formation
How much liquid leaves the plasma to form tissue fluid depends on two opposing
forces:
hydrostatic pressure
This is blood pressure; the pressure exerted by the blood on the walls of the
blood vessels
Blood pressure pushes outwards from the blood vessels
the solute concentration gradient
Proteins dissolved in the blood lower the blood water potential, meaning that
there is a water potential gradient between the capillary and the surrounding
tissue
Water moves from high to low water potential by osmosis, so water is drawn
back in from the tissues into the capillaries
When blood is at the arterial end of a capillary the hydrostatic pressure is greater than
the osmotic pull so molecules are forced out of the capillary down a pressure gradient
At the venous end of the capillary the volume of fluid is lower and the blood is further
from the heart, so the hydrostatic pressure is reduced
The solute concentration gradient between the capillary and the tissue fluid remains the
same as at the arterial end, so water begins to flow back into the capillary from the tissue
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fluid by osmosis
Your notes
The formation of tissue fluid is caused by the solute concentration and hydrostatic
pressure gradients
Tissue fluid formation can be affected by factors such as:
High blood pressure: this can force extra fluid out of the capillaries, meaning that an
increased volume of fluid is left behind after the effects of osmosis
Low blood protein content: this can increase the water potential of the blood and
so reduce the effect of osmosis, also resulting in a build-up of fluid in the tissues
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