Module 2:

Composite Materials – Introduction

Modern technologies, especially in aerospace, underwater, and transportation fields, need
materials with special combinations of properties. Conventional materials like metals,
ceramics, and polymers cannot always meet these demands.

To overcome this, composite materials are developed. A composite is a multiphase material

that combines the properties of its different phases to achieve better overall performance.

A composite consists of two main phases:

• Matrix phase: The continuous phase that holds everything together.

May be metal ceramic or polymer.

• Dispersed phase: The embedded phase that enhances specific properties.

It is connected to matrix phase by bonding.

The final properties of a composite depend on:

• Properties of matrix and dispersed phases

• Their relative amounts

• Geometry of the dispersed phase (shape, size, distribution, and orientation)

Composites allow engineers to design materials with tailored mechanical, thermal, or

chemical properties that are not achievable with traditional materials.

Types of Composites (Based on Reinforcement Type)

1. Particle-Reinforced Composites

• Reinforcement: Small particles (hard or soft)

• Types:

o Large-Particle Composites – e.g., concrete

o Dispersion-Strengthened Composites – e.g., sintered metals

• Purpose: Improve strength, hardness, and wear resistance

2. Fibre-Reinforced Composites

• Reinforcement: Fibres like glass, carbon, or aramid

• Types:

o Continuous Fibre:

▪ Long fibres aligned in one direction

▪ High strength and stiffness along fibre axis

o Discontinuous Fibre (short fibres):

▪ Aligned: Short fibres oriented in one direction

▪ Randomly Oriented: Short fibres arranged randomly

▪ Easier to manufacture

▪ More isotropic properties

▪ Used in moderate strength applications like panels and covers

• Advantages: High strength-to-weight ratio

• Applications: Aerospace, automotive, sports equipment

3. Structural Composites

• Structure: Layered or sandwich designs

• Types:

o Laminar Composites: Multiple layers bonded together (e.g., plywood)

o Sandwich Panels: Two strong outer layers with a lightweight core

• Purpose: High stiffness and strength with reduced weight

• Applications: Aircraft panels, building materials, packaging

Particle-Reinforced Composites

These composites use small particles (hard or soft) as reinforcement within a matrix
material to improve mechanical properties like strength, hardness, stiffness, and wear
resistance.

Types:

1. Large-Particle Composites
 o Particles are larger and clearly visible under a microscope

o Improve load transfer between matrix and particles

o Example: Concrete (cement matrix + gravel/sand particles)

2. Dispersion-Strengthened Composites

o Very fine particles (usually in the nanometer or micrometer range)

o Strengthening occurs by hindering dislocation movement

o Example: Sintered metals, like aluminum with alumina particles

Applications:

• Automotive brake pads

• Cutting tools

• Building materials

Large-Particle Composites

Definition:
Large-particle composites are materials in which large, distinct particles are embedded in a
matrix (metal, polymer, or ceramic) to improve mechanical properties.

Key Points:

• Particles are large enough to be seen under a microscope.

• They do not dissolve into the matrix but help to transfer load and restrain
deformation.

• Strengthening comes from mechanical interaction between matrix and particles (not
atomic-level bonding).

• Improve stiffness, wear resistance, and toughness.

Examples:

• Concrete → Matrix: cement, Particles: sand and gravel

• Carbon black in rubber → Used in tires for strength and durability

Dispersion-Strengthened Composites
Definition:
These are composites where very fine particles (usually less than 0.1 µm) are uniformly
dispersed in a matrix material to improve strength and resistance to deformation.

Key Points:

• Particles are much smaller than in large-particle composites.

• Strengthening is achieved by hindering dislocation movement within the matrix.

• Effective even at high temperatures.

• Used in metal matrix composites.

Examples:

• Sintered aluminum with alumina (Al₂O₃) particles

• Oxide-dispersion-strengthened (ODS) steels used in turbines and reactors

Types of Fibre-Reinforced Composites

Fibre-reinforced composites use fibres to enhance mechanical properties like strength,

stiffness, and toughness. They are classified based on fibre length and orientation:

1. Continuous and Aligned Fibres

• Long fibres aligned in a single direction

• Provide high strength and stiffness along the fibre direction

• Load is efficiently transferred to the fibres

• Used in aerospace and high-performance applications

2. Discontinuous and Aligned Fibres

• Short fibres but all oriented in the same direction

• Provide moderate strength, less than continuous fibres

• Still directional in property improvement

• Easier to manufacture than continuous composites

3. Discontinuous and Randomly Oriented Fibres

 • Short fibres placed randomly in the matrix

• Properties are more isotropic (same in all directions)

• Strength is lower than aligned types but cost-effective

• Used in panels, covers, and general-purpose components

Structural Composites

Structural composites are designed to achieve high strength and stiffness while maintaining
a reduced weight. They are typically constructed with layered or sandwich structures to
enhance their performance.

Types:

1. Laminar Composites

o Consist of layers of materials bonded together.

o Layers can be of different materials or orientations to enhance properties.

o Example: Plywood (wood layers bonded together with adhesive)

2. Sandwich Panels

o Composed of two strong outer layers with a lightweight core in between.

o The core provides low density without compromising strength.

o Example: Honeycomb panels used in aircraft and buildings

Applications:

• Aircraft panels

• Building materials (walls, flooring)

• Packaging (lightweight, strong materials)

Laminar Composites

Definition:
Laminar composites are made by bonding multiple layers of different materials or the same
material in a specific arrangement to enhance overall properties like strength, stiffness, and
durability.

Key Points:
 • Layers (laminae) are typically oriented in different directions to improve strength
and stiffness in multiple directions.

• Each layer can have different properties to provide better performance under
specific loads.

• Layers are bonded together using adhesives or other binding methods.

• Strength and flexibility can be tailored based on the layer material and orientation.

Examples:

• Plywood: Multiple layers of wood, each with grains oriented in different directions
for improved strength and flexibility.

• Carbon fibre laminates: Used in aircraft, where each layer has fibres oriented at
different angles for balanced strength.

Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs)

Definition:
Metal Matrix Composites (MMCs) are composites where a metal serves as the matrix, and
the reinforcement is typically made of ceramic particles, fibres, or other metals. These
composites combine the properties of metals (like ductility and toughness) with the
enhanced strength, wear resistance, or thermal properties provided by the reinforcement.

Key Points:

• Matrix: Metal (e.g., aluminum, magnesium, titanium)

• Reinforcement: Ceramic particles (like silicon carbide) or fibers (like carbon or glass)

• Properties: Improved strength, hardness, and resistance to wear or thermal

expansion compared to the base metal alone.

• Advantages:

o High strength-to-weight ratio

o Excellent thermal conductivity

o High wear resistance and dimensional stability

• Applications:

o Aerospace: For lightweight, high-strength components

o Automotive: Engine parts, brake rotors, pistons

o Electronics: Heat sinks and electrical conductors

Examples:

• Aluminum matrix composites reinforced with silicon carbide (SiC)

• Titanium matrix composites used in high-performance aerospace parts

Applications of Composite Materials

1. Aerospace: Aircraft structures, spacecraft components (lightweight and high-strength

materials).

2. Automotive: Car bodies, brake systems (lightweight and high-strength).

3. Marine: Boat hulls, underwater vehicles (corrosion-resistant and strong).

4. Sports Equipment: Bicycles, tennis rackets, golf clubs (light and strong).

5. Construction: Bridges, buildings (corrosion-resistant, strong).

6. Electronics: Heat sinks, electrical connectors (high conductivity and light).

7. Medical: Prosthetics, implants (biocompatible, strong).

8. Defense: Armor systems, missile components (lightweight, impact-resistant).

Overview of Smart Materials

Smart materials are a type of functional materials that can sense and respond to
external stimuli like temperature, pressure, electric or magnetic fields.

Features:

• Belong to the Functional Materials category.

• Can interchange thermal, electric, magnetic, sound, and mechanical energy.

• Adaptive and responsive like biological systems.

• Exhibit properties like self-sensing, actuation, control, and adaptability.

Smart Materials

Smart materials are materials that can sense, think, and respond to changes in their
environment like intelligent systems.

Key Features:
 • Show mental alertness, quick perception, fast response, and intelligence.

• Can:

1. Sense a problem (receive information),

2. Analyze it (process the info),

3. Act accordingly (trigger a response or change).

Classification of Smart Materials:

1. Structural Smart Materials

o Load-bearing with sensing or actuation (e.g., smart concrete, shape memory

alloys).

2. Electrical Smart Materials

o Respond to electric signals (e.g., piezoelectric materials, electroactive

polymers).

3. Biocompatible Smart Materials

o Used in medical applications (e.g., smart implants, drug-delivery systems).

4. Intelligent Materials

o Combine sensing, processing, and response (e.g., self-healing materials).

5. Biological Smart Materials

o Inspired by or integrated with biological systems (e.g., bio-sensors, living

tissues).

6. Dynamically Tunable Materials

o Properties can be adjusted in real-time (e.g., tunable lenses, smart coatings).

Specific Types of Smart Materials:

1. Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)

– Return to original shape when heated.
Use: Actuators, medical stents.

2. Piezoelectric Materials
– Generate electric charge when mechanically stressed.
Use: Sensors, buzzers.
 3. Magnetostrictive Materials
– Change shape when exposed to a magnetic field.
Use: Precision actuators, sonar systems.

4. Magneto-Rheological (MR) Fluids

– Change viscosity in presence of magnetic field.
Use: Dampers, car suspensions.

5. Electro-Rheological (ER) Fluids

– Change viscosity in presence of electric field.
Use: Clutches, brakes.

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs)

SMAs are smart materials that return to their original shape after deformation when
heated.

Two Phases of SMAs:

1. Martensite Phase
– Low-temperature phase
– Soft and easily deformable

2. Austenite Phase
– High-temperature phase
– Strong and returns to original shape

Example: Nitinol (Nickel-Titanium alloy)

Uses: Stents, actuators, eyeglass frames

Shape Memory Effect

The shape memory effect is the ability of a material (like SMAs) to "remember" and return
to its original shape after deformation when heated.

How it works:

1. Deform the material in the martensite phase (low temperature).

2. Heat it — it transforms to the austenite phase and returns to its original shape.
Seen in: Nitinol wires, medical devices, actuators.

Shape Memory Alloys (SMAs) in Robotics

SMAs are used in robotics as actuators due to their ability to change shape with
temperature.

Applications:

• Artificial muscles

• Micro-actuators for small robotic parts

• Grippers and flexible joints

• Soft robotics (lightweight and silent movement)

Why SMAs?

• Compact

• Lightweight

• Silent operation

• Simple mechanism (no gears or motors)

Piezoelectric Effect

The piezoelectric effect is the ability of certain materials to generate an electric charge
when mechanical stress is applied, and vice versa.

Types:

1. Direct Effect: Mechanical stress → Electric voltage

2. Reverse Effect: Electric voltage → Mechanical deformation

Examples: Quartz, PZT

Uses: Sensors, actuators, microphones, lighters
Applications of Piezoelectric Effect:

1. Sensors – Pressure, vibration, and acceleration sensors

2. Actuators – Precision movement in robotics and optics

3. Microphones – Convert sound (mechanical) to electrical signal

4. Lighters – Spark generation in gas lighters

5. Ultrasound devices – Medical imaging and cleaning tools

6. Energy Harvesting – Convert mechanical energy (vibrations) into electricity

7. Piezo buzzers – Sound-producing devices in alarms

Welding

Welding is a permanent metal joining process in which two or more metal parts are fused
together by heating (with or without pressure and filler).

Key Features:

• Produces strong, permanent joints

• Heat source: gas flame, electric arc, laser, etc.

• May use filler metal and flux to prevent oxidation

Types :
Arc Welding

Gas Welding
Tig and mig Welding

1. Arc Welding

• Uses electric arc to generate heat and melt the base metals.

• May use filler metal.

• Forms strong joints.

Safety Devices in Arc Welding

• Welding helmet with dark lens (protects eyes from arc light)

• Gloves and apron (protect from sparks and heat)

• Proper earthing and circuit breakers

2. Gas Welding

• Uses gas flame (e.g., oxy-acetylene) for welding.

• No electricity required.

• Suitable for thin metal sheets.

Gas Welding:

Gas welding is a fusion welding process in which a strong gas flame is used to heat and melt
the workpieces. This method involves using a filler material to fill the joint, similar to arc
welding.

Gas Combinations Used for Heating:

1. Oxygen & Acetylene: Most commonly used in gas welding.

2. Oxygen & Hydrogen: Another combination used, but less common.

The temperature reached during gas welding can go as high as 3500°C, which allows the
workpieces to be heated and melted for the welding process.

Oxy-Acetylene Gas Welding Equipment:

• Cylinders: There are two large steel cylinders:

o One contains oxygen at high pressure.

o The other contains dissolved acetylene at high pressure.

 • Rubber Tubes: Used to transport gases from the cylinders.

• Pressure Regulators: Control the pressure of the gases being supplied.

• Blow Torch: Where oxygen and acetylene are mixed and then expelled through the
nozzle for welding.

Flames in Gas Welding:

The flame produced by mixing oxygen and acetylene in specific ratios can vary, and the type
of flame used depends on the application and the material being welded.

1. Neutral Flame:

o Oxygen: Acetylene = 1:1 ratio.

o Produces a small whitish inner cone surrounded by a sharply defined blue

outer flame.

o This is the most commonly used flame for welding.

2. Carburizing Flame (Reducing Flame):

o Oxygen: Acetylene = 0.95:1 ratio (excess acetylene).

o It has three cones:

1. An inner white cone.

2. An intermediate whitish cone.

3. A bluish envelope flame.

o This flame is used when a reduced atmosphere is needed for the welding
process.

3. Oxidizing Flame:

o Oxygen: Acetylene = 1.5:1 ratio (excess oxygen).

o The inner white cone is shorter compared to the neutral flame.

o This flame is used for welding materials like Monel metal, nickel, and other
non-ferrous materials.

Summary of Flame Types:

• Neutral Flame: Best for general welding and most common.

 • Carburizing (Reducing) Flame: Used for special applications where excess acetylene
is needed.

• Oxidizing Flame: Used for specific metals where an oxidizing atmosphere is required.

3. TIG Welding (Tungsten Inert Gas)

• Uses non-consumable tungsten electrode

• Shielding gas: argon or helium

• Gives precise and clean welds

• Used for stainless steel, aluminum

4. MIG Welding (Metal Inert Gas)

• Uses consumable wire electrode

• Shielding gas: CO₂ or argon

• Faster than TIG; used for thick metals

Common Welding Defects:

1. Lack of Fusion
– Caused by low heat input or fast torch movement
– Results in poor bonding between weld and base metal

2. Porosity
– Gas trapped in solidifying weld metal
– Weakens the joint

3. Inclusions
– Due to slag not fully removed before next weld pass
– Reduces weld quality

4. Cracking
– Caused by thermal shrinkage during cooling
– Leads to failure under stress

5. Undercut
– Excess melting of base metal
– Weakens the joint by reducing cross-section