Definition of Computer

A computer is a machine that can be programmed to automatically carry out sequences of arithmetic or
logical operations (computation). Modern digital electronic computers can perform generic sets of
operations known as programs. These programs enable computers to perform a wide range of tasks.
The term computer system may refer to a nominally complete computer that includes the hardware,
operating system, software, and peripheral equipment needed and used for full operation; or to a group
of computers that are linked and function together, such as a computer network or computer cluster.

A broad range of industrial and consumer products use computers as control systems, including simple
special-purpose devices like microwave ovens and remote controls, and factory devices like industrial
robots. Computers are at the core of general-purpose devices such as personal computers and mobile
devices such as smartphones. Computers power the Internet, which links billions of computers and
users.

Early computers were meant to be used only for calculations. Simple manual instruments like the abacus
have aided people in doing calculations since ancient times. Early in the Industrial Revolution, some
mechanical devices were built to automate long, tedious tasks, such as guiding patterns for looms. More
sophisticated electrical machines did specialized analog calculations in the early 20th century. The first
digital electronic calculating machines were developed during World War II, both electromechanical and
using thermionic valves. The first semiconductor transistors in the late 1940s were followed by the
silicon-based MOSFET (MOS transistor) and monolithic integrated circuit chip technologies in the late
1950s, leading to the microprocessor and the microcomputer revolution in the 1970s. The speed, power
and versatility of computers have been increasing dramatically ever since then, with transistor counts
increasing at a rapid pace (Moore's law noted that counts doubled every two years), leading to the
Digital Revolution during the late 20th to early 21st centuries.

Conventionally, a modern computer consists of at least one processing element, typically a central
processing unit (CPU) in the form of a microprocessor, together with some type of computer memory,
typically semiconductor memory chips. The processing element carries out arithmetic and logical
operations, and a sequencing and control unit can change the order of operations in response to stored
information. Peripheral devices include input devices (keyboards, mice, joystick, etc.), output devices
(monitor screens, printers, etc.), and input/output devices that perform both functions (e.g., the 2000s-
era touchscreen). Peripheral devices allow information to be retrieved from an external source and they
enable the result of operations to be saved and retrieved.

Definition of Society

A society is a group of individuals involved in persistent social interaction or a large social group sharing
the same spatial or social territory, typically subject to the same political authority and dominant
cultural expectations. Societies are characterized by patterns of relationships (social relations) between
individuals who share a distinctive culture and institutions; a given society may be described as the sum
total of such relationships among its constituent members.

Human social structures are complex and highly cooperative, featuring the specialization of labor via
social roles. Societies construct roles and other patterns of behavior by deeming certain actions or
concepts acceptable or unacceptable—these expectations around behavior within a given society are
known as societal norms. So far as it is collaborative, a society can enable its members to benefit in ways
that would otherwise be difficult on an individual basis.

Societies vary based on level of technology and type of economic activity. Larger societies with larger
food surpluses often exhibit stratification or dominance patterns. Societies can have many different
forms of government, various ways of understanding kinship, and different gender roles. Human
behavior varies immensely between different societies; humans shape society, but society in turn
shapes human beings.

Definition of Computer And Society

Our generation strives to be the quick paced society which we are known to be. To do so, our generation
uses computers to their full potential in order to do more tasks and to do them at a faster pace.
Computers benefit the business and personal world by being able to do the following more efficiently:
buying and selling products, communicating throughout the world, enhancing our knowledge, job
influences, entertainment, research, and paying bills. We’re now capable of creating new, more and
better quality tasks via computer technology. Computers also benefit society with the enhancement of
knowledge of medicine which creates more effective treatments for a healthier and longer life.
Computers are improving healthcare through robotics and research. We communicate operation results
and any surgical problems easily and immediately between healthcare providers all over the world.
Using robotics, surgeons can now perform surgeries in remote and/or distant countries without ever
leaving their resident hospital. education, computers have changed the way we are able to acquire
knowledge and attend school. In the past, school was a physical building we had to attend. Today, we
can "attend" school completely online, never having to step foot outside of our homes, or attend both
online and on a college campus in what is known as a blended course. We are able to invest our time
differently and accomplish more. The convenience of computers is that we are able to access the
computer 24 hours a day, 7 days a week, and 365 days a year. This also gives our society time to expand
our knowledge and create new opportunities for our selves.

Being crucially important to the human race, computers have ultimately altered the way today’s society
works, communicates, entertains, and educates. There is hardly any field of career left where
technology isn’t essential; every small action performed in a job ultimately goes through some kind of a
computer. In the end, being able to communicate and engage in this fast-paced manner enhances
productivity levels by a great amount. One area this advancement of computers has immensely
impacted is the business field. All businesses use computers to keep track of accounts, money, or make
transactions. No longer will it take days, or even weeks, to communicate with someone that might not
be located in one’s vicinity, as a computer allows one to easily send and receive emails with just a click
of a button.

Another field that has come a long way since the production of computers is the entertainment area.
Without the exceptional special effects put into an action movie with the help of our advanced
technology, the audience would most likely not enjoy the show, resulting in the potential collapse of the
entertainment business. For example, imagine watching the epic science fiction film, Avatar, but without
any special effects put into it…it certainly would not be as entertaining as the power of computers
transformed it to be. Hence, computers are able to keep both consumers and sellers satisfied, while still
continuing to integrate into the everyday lives of average individuals.

Computing As A Profession

Computing professionals have a responsibility to practice at the state-of-the-art, and maintain their
knowledge at the forefront. In addition, professionals have an obligation to share clear understanding of
the technology and its implications to non-professionals, and operate in accord with professional ethics.
These are daunting goals for an individual, and so professional societies play a critical role in cultivating
and supporting professionalism. What roles specifically?
First, a professional society should be a conservator and disseminator of deep technical knowledge and
expertise: championing the advance of the field by leading technologists worldwide, documenting the
state-of-the-art in technology and application, and accelerating the dissemination and availability of
such knowledge to computing professionals.

Second, societies develop and advocate principles for ethical technical conduct that frame the role of
computing professionals, and buttress them with the stature and role of the profession in society.
Examples include the articulation of best practices, intellectual challenges for the field, as well as
address societal questions that require deep technical perspective, such as the USACM joint release on
the Internet of Things.

An independent professional society must transcend any individual, organization, government, or cause.
Necessarily so, as technical knowledge and professional ethics must inform professional conduct, and
inevitably come into conflict with personal interest, corporate interest, government or national interest,
or even overt coercion.

Computer Scientist

Computer scientists design, develop, and analyze the software and hardware used to solve problems in
all kinds of business, industry, scientific, and social contexts. And because computers solve problems to
serve and enrich people, there is a significant human component to computer science. Due to the range
and complexity of the projects they take on, computer scientists depend on both technical knowledge
and essential skills like communication, problem solving, critical thinking, and creativity. Other useful
skills include:

Analytical and logical thinking

Technical and mathematical skills

Attention to detail

Project management

Technical writing

Research

Art and design

Not all computer science professionals will need every skill listed—because of the broad nature of the
field, they have the opportunity to focus on the skills pertinent to their unique interests and chosen
focus area (which may change over time).

Importance Of Computer

Increased efficiency and productivity: Computer systems help people perform complex tasks with
unparalleled speed and accuracy. Automated processes save time and effort, which leads to increased
productivity in people’s personal and professional lives.

Essential information management: Computer systems enable people to store, organise, and retrieve
vast amounts of information. And with sophisticated databases and search engines, people can access
knowledge with just a few clicks or keystrokes, making research and data analysis more efficient than
ever before.

Enhanced communication and connectivity: The advent of computer networks and the internet has
revolutionised communication. Email, social media, video conferencing, and instant messaging have
transformed how people connect and collaborate with others around the world.

SOCIOLOGICAL IMPACTS OF COMPUTER

Computer has contributed to the development of the society in different ramification.

1. It has contributed to fee development of western education in the society

2. The use of computer has given room for employment in the society for example system analyst,
programmer, computer operator, computer technician

3. In the area of transportation, computer has improved automobile cars and is ease to use in airline
seat reservation, booking of space, etc.

4. In the area of safety, computer aid in detecting crime for example with the help of electronics alarm
system in the bank when there is robbery. Also, it is use for traffic on road, rail and air to prevent
accident in the society
5. In the area of security, gadgets of computers are made available on the outside of a particular
environment so that everything going on or happening could not go unnoticed.

6. In the area of entertainment computer can be used in playing music, watching movies, playing games,
electronics dice etc.

7. In the area of health, computer is useful e.g. scanning of pregnant woman to know the position of
baby, aby, to store drugs etc.

8. Door locks are now computerized; Visit the Sheraton Hotel in Abuja, to see how computer coded
plastics that looks like your ID card have replaced keys to all rooms. The receptionist can open or lock
the door of your room, say, on the 10% floor without leaving the reception on the ground floor.

Application software and Organisation

Application software is a program design by skilled application to meet the need of the user, the
software uses the power of the computer to solve specifie taak. This application software is referred to
as package. Some application software uses and their examples:

Architectural: They are packages designing to aid the architect in designing their various structures e g.
Auto-cad.

Word Processing packages: Word Processing is the computerized preparation and handling of an
organization's paper work. It is an efficient way of producing a types document e.g MSWord,
WordPerfect, WordStar etc.

Spreadsheet packages: They are useful for financial mathematical analysis e.g MSExcel, Lotus 123 and
QuattroPro etc.

Accounting they are packages design for accounting problems e.g. Dac Easy, Asspia-plus, and Pacioli 200
etc.

Database: This is a collection of data element grouped together as one entity and structured to fit
information needs of an organization e.g. Database IV, Paradox, MS-Access, am Oracle etc.

Graphics: These are packages that can handle data from various source such as database manager's
accounting and representing this in graphical forma e.g. Lotus freelance, Adobe PageMaker, Microsoft
PowerPoint etc.
Characteristic of Computer

Speed

Most of the advantages of the computer come from its speed. A computer is capable of solving a
complex problem 10 times faster than a human mind. A computer can handle about 1,000,000
instructions per second.

The tasks are performed within microseconds and nanoseconds. This speed helps in completing time-
bound tasks and delivering the output without any delay. This speed is one of the main characteristics of
computer and has helped humans to a great extent.

Accuracy

With speed comes the responsibility for accurate results. The computer is capable of giving almost 100%
accurate results. Be it any complex calculation, a computer delivers it with zero errors.

If any error is found, it’s mostly due to inaccurate or insufficient data provided by the user. A computer
can work consistently alongside maintaining speed and no compromise in accuracy.

Reliability

From major companies to banks to personal use, everyone has shifted their work to computers. Due to
this, it is very important our data remains in safe hands. Be it day or night, computers are highly reliable.
All the data transported through the different types of computer networks is carried out safely.

Many major companies rely on computers for data hiding and manipulation. Computers are responsible
for all the calculations of large transactions. Hence, it would be safe to say computers are quite reliable.

Consistency

Being consistent is one of the best characteristics of the computer. A computer never feels tired. It can
work day and night, seven days a week. And most importantly without any error.

You can feed it with the same data multiple times, and each time result will be the same. No human can
work day and night and give accurate results. A computer can work on trillions of instructions
continuously and this is why it helps complete tasks within time.

Versatility
Versatility means the “ability to adapt or be adapted to many different functions or activities“. A
computer is a versatile machine. It can perform multiple tasks and not just complex calculations.

Due to the different functions of Computers, we can see them everywhere, in banks, offices, schools,
shopping complexes, grocery stores, etc. And at each place, they perform different tasks. This shows
that computers are versatile and can perform various tasks with the same efficiency and accuracy.

Multitasking

We know that computers are versatile, however, they can not only perform various tasks but also at the
same time. They can work on different tasks at the same time, that too without slowing down or
inaccuracy. That is to say, they are multitaskers.

For example, you can play YouTube in the background while downloading a movie from some other
website and simultaneously playing a game. And all the applications will be perfectly fine without any
hassle.

This can be easily and efficiently done by a computer. Thus computers are multitaskers and help
complete various tasks simultaneously. Consequently saving a huge amount of time.

Power of Remembering

A human mind tends to forget things easily over time. Even information printed on paper fades away if
kept for a long. But computer data neither fades nor gets lost. It is easy to access any information,
randomly.

Whatever data is fed into the computer stays the same way for years and is only up to the user, when to
access it modify it, or delete it. Thus, it makes a computer highly useful in terms of storing sensitive and
important information.

Automation

A computer is an automated machine. even if it’s humans instruct it. This is because once the
instructions are passed, the computer works on its own till the task is completely done. This includes
zero human intervention.

Moreover, a computer performs tasks on a fixed schedule. It helps to set daily reminders, scan for
viruses timely, perform types of software updates on its own, or perform system diagnostics.
All of this can be done without a user reminding the computer daily. A computer is helpful in large
factories to pack and ship products. This all can be done with the help of a computer once it is fed with
specific instructions.

Memory

A computer has a built-in memory. One is primary memory or the volatile memory called the RAM
(Random access memory). Till the computer is connected to the power source. The data stored in RAM
gets deleted once the power source is removed.

The other memory is secondary memory or permanent memory. Secondary memory stores all the data
and it remains safe even after the power source removal. So, this characteristic of the computer of
having its memory is highly useful.

Storage

Computers are capable of storing a large amount of data due to their huge storage capacity. Be it any
kind of data games, music, movies, pictures, text documents, etc. in other words a computer can store it
all.

Computers nowadays come with various storage capacities of up to 1TB. The storage is no limit to the
storage. One can have external storage devices like CDs, pen drives, external hard drives, etc. to store
data.

There is no limit to what amount of data can be stored. And the biggest advantage is that any of this
data can be accessed randomly without any hassle. Thus computers are a great way to store our data
safely for the longest time.

Speed

Speed is the first of the five major characteristics of a computer.

The speed of a computer device is very fast, as it can perform tasks in a few seconds that no amount of
calculation or anything that a human being can do in an entire year or more.

2 gigahertz to 4 gigahertz is the speed range of a computer device.

Accuracy

The accuracy of a computer is consistent. The computer gives us an accurate result or calculation.

Errors that occur in the result of any calculation in a computer are only due to a wrong program or
instruction, inaccuracy in the input data, etc.

You can directly say that errors in computers can happen only due to human beings. Otherwise, a
computer device's accuracy is always high.

Consistency

A computer is a dependable machine, which means it never tyres of working. You can use a computer to
complete your task without error for an unlimited number of hours; unlimited hours means you can use
your computer system continuously 24 hours a day, 365 days a year.

Data storage capacity

A computer can store a huge amount of data on a small storage disc such as a hard disk, CD, DVD,
PenDrive, memory card, etc.

Consider the fact that a computer can now store a massive amount of data on a small storage disk.For
example, a Pen Drive of 16 GB is enough to store the entire Encyclopaedia Britannica.

Flexibility

Flexibility is the fifth major characteristic of a computer.

Flexibility means that a computer can work in many areas. For example, you can use your computer
system to:

Watch movies or videos.

Listen to sounds or music

Play games

See pictures

Write textual documents and save

Open and read anything.

and many more.

Automation

The word "automation" is used in conjunction with the computer for a particular task; the computer
does not fully depend on the user, but it proceeds the task in a forward direction automatically till its
completion.

Computers can be easily programmed to perform a series of tasks based on the specifications.The
computer automatically executes these instructions sequentially, and if any error occurs, it produces the
appropriate error message.

Remembrance Power

The computer can store and recall the information at any time because of the presence of secondary
storage devices, but this is not possible with human beings.

Although the brain of a human being can store unlimited data.

Limitation of Computer Technology

Computers have become an integral part of our lives Limitations of computers, revolutionizing the way
we work, communicate, and entertain ourselves. They have evolved rapidly over the years, becoming
more powerful, efficient, and versatile. However, despite their incredible capabilities, computers are not
without limitations.

Processing Power

One of the most apparent limitations of computers is their processing power. While modern computers
boast impressive processing speeds, they are still bound by the constraints of Moore’s Law, which
predicts that the number of transistors on a microchip will double approximately every two years. This
law is showing signs of slowing down, as it becomes increasingly difficult to shrink transistors further.
Consequently, there’s a limit to how much more powerful we can make individual processors.

Tasks that require massive amounts of computation, such as simulating complex scientific phenomena
or rendering lifelike graphics in real-time, often strain even the most powerful supercomputers.
Quantum computing holds promise for overcoming some of these limitations, but it is still in its infancy
and faces significant technical challenges.

Energy Consumption

As computers have become more powerful, they have also become more energy-hungry. The massive
data centers that power the internet and cloud computing services consume enormous amounts of
electricity, contributing to carbon emissions and environmental concerns. Reducing the energy
consumption of computers while maintaining or increasing their performance is a significant challenge.

Efforts to develop energy-efficient computing technologies, such as low-power processors and data
center cooling innovations, are ongoing. However, the quest for sustainable computing solutions
remains a formidable task.

Storage Capacity

While storage technology has come a long way, there are still limitations to the amount of data that can
be stored on a physical medium. Hard drives and solid-state drives have finite capacities, and the
demand for ever-increasing storage space continues to grow. Moreover, data degradation over time and
the risk of data loss due to hardware failures remain concerns.

Cloud storage has provided a solution to some extent, but it relies on data centers with their own
limitations. Researchers are exploring alternative storage solutions, such as DNA data storage, which can
potentially store vast amounts of data in a stable and compact form.

Security and Privacy

Computer systems are vulnerable to various security threats, including malware, hacking, and data
breaches. Despite advances in cybersecurity, the battle against cybercriminals is ongoing. The increasing
complexity of software and the interconnectedness of devices make it challenging to create completely
secure systems.

Additionally, the issue of digital privacy is a significant concern. As more data is collected and processed
by computers, questions about who has access to this data and how it is used become increasingly
important. Striking a balance between convenience and privacy is a persistent challenge in the digital
age.
Software Limitations

Software plays a critical role in computer functionality, but it is not without limitations. Software can
contain bugs and vulnerabilities that may lead to system crashes or security breaches. Compatibility
issues can arise when trying to run older software on newer hardware, and vice versa. Moreover,
creating software that is user-friendly and intuitive remains an ongoing challenge.

Artificial intelligence and machine learning are making strides in addressing some of these limitations by
automating tasks, improving software quality, and enhancing user experiences. However, these
technologies also come with their own set of challenges, such as bias in AI algorithms and ethical
concerns.

Human-Computer Interaction

While computers have made great strides in understanding and responding to human input, there is still
a gap between human and computer communication. Natural language processing and speech
recognition have come a long way, but computers may still struggle to understand the nuances of
human language, including humor, sarcasm, and cultural context.

User interfaces can be complex, and learning to use new software or hardware can be challenging for
many people. Additionally, accessibility remains an issue for individuals with disabilities, as not all
software and hardware are designed with their needs in mind.

Finite Lifespan

Computers, like all electronic devices, have a finite lifespan. Components degrade over time, and
hardware failures can occur unexpectedly. The rapid pace of technological advancement often makes
older hardware and software obsolete, which can be costly and environmentally unfriendly.

Efforts to extend the lifespan of computers through modular and upgradeable designs are
commendable, but widespread adoption remains a challenge. Additionally, the problem of electronic
waste is a growing concern, as discarded computers contribute to pollution and resource depletion.

IMPACT OF COMPUTING IN OTHER PROFESSION

Computing has had a significant impact on various professions, transforming the way professionals
perform their tasks and improving overall efficiency. Some of these impacts include:
1. Healthcare: Computing has revolutionized healthcare by enabling electronic medical records,
telemedicine, and digital imaging. This has led to improved communication, enhanced diagnosis and
treatment capabilities, and streamlined administration processes.

2. Education: Computing has transformed the education sector by facilitating online learning platforms,
digital textbooks, and interactive educational tools. This has made education accessible anytime and
anywhere, promoting self-paced learning and personalized instruction.

3. Finance: Computing has revolutionized the finance industry through online banking, electronic
payments, and algorithmic trading. This has made financial transactions more convenient, secure, and
efficient, reducing manual errors and enabling real-time analysis and decision-making.

4. Manufacturing: Computing has revolutionized manufacturing processes through automation,

robotics, and artificial intelligence. This has increased productivity, reduced production costs, and
improved quality control, leading to more efficient and sustainable manufacturing.

5. Communication: Computing has transformed communication across various professions through

email, video conferencing, and instant messaging. This has improved collaboration, shortened response
times, and enabled remote work, making communication more efficient and effective.

6. Architecture and Design: Computing has revolutionized architecture and design by enabling
computer-aided design (CAD) software, virtual reality modeling, and 3D printing. This has enhanced
creativity, precision, and visualization, enabling architects and designers to experiment with different
concepts and produce accurate prototypes.

7. Transportation: Computing has had a profound impact on the transportation industry through the
advent of GPS navigation, smart traffic management systems, and autonomous vehicles. This has
improved transportation efficiency, safety, and sustainability, reducing traffic congestion and accidents.

8. Entertainment: Computing has transformed the entertainment industry through digital streaming,
online gaming, and virtual reality experiences. This has changed the way people consume media,
providing personalized content and immersive experiences.

COMPUTERAND MECHANICAL ENGINEER

Corusadering the area of discrete production, the automation oil discrete unit of production processes is
extremely difficult. To use mechanization oriented equipment for this type of produon attracts very
large expenditure. Therefore, computers are often used to integrate and control the various mechanized
components of the discrete system using a microprocessor control system in the discrete unit
production has the advantage of increasing production rates, improving quality and decreased labour
cost per unit.

Although, an operator can perform these functions with optical and mechanical aids but the production
rate is surely going to be slow compared to a microprocessor controlled system which control the
necessary function sequences as well as controlling the lead to die position. Again, the automation
system operates consistently at a production rate five times faster than with an operator.

COMPUTER AND ELECTRICALENGINEER

Considering electrical engineers for example one who work with NEPA (as a case study) where he has to
do thing related to generation, transmission, distribution of electricity and see to wiring of the building
constructed. The National Electric Power Authority as an organization requires the use of hybrid
computer, which have the features of Digital and Analogue computers. The computers carry out
complex and lengthy mathematical analytical operation very rapidly in processing or undertaking
routine clerical task. The analogue computer is a specialized calculating machine that operates with
number represented by measurable quantities of a given magnitude e.g. mechanical movement, voltage
and resistance etc. The digital computer compare to analogue computer is more versatile and operates
electronically with numbers expressed in a given number scale. Also, all information relating to NEPA
staff e.g. processing of their records, keeping attendance, preparation of payroll system for payment of
workers salary can be done using this type of computer.

In the electrical fields, there in no doubt that computing is now being applied to all the areas of its
operations. Among ail the aspect in which computing has boosted its productivity, are the under listed
via:

1 The design of electrical circuit

2 The verification of electrical circuits

3. The simulation of electrical circuits

4 For the fixing of active elements such as transistors, gates. resistors, ICs etc. on the motherboard.

5 Tracing of faults on the electrical gadget.

6 It allows for easy conversion form analogue to digital

7. For easy monitoring of waveforms

8 It can be used to calculate the bill of materials to be used in a project

9 It can be used to determine the amount of current consumed Having listed some of the areas in which
computers are utilized in the electrical field it would be of more relevance if some of these points were
analyzed.

COMPUTERS AND GOVERNMENT

Government is those organs involved in the execution of rules and regulation of a country with the help
of a legal document known as the constitution. Computer and government is simply the use of computer
for solving problems such as analyzing, calculating per capital income, decision making in various
activities involved in government.

APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER IN GOVERNMENT

Activities involved in government can be computerized to make the economy, decision making and the
proper running of such government to be efficient and accurate examples of areas of applications of
computer in government includes the followings:

1. Income tax return verification

2. Tax billing.

3. Vehicle registration and Driver's licensing

4. For law enforcement purpose

5. Budget analysis.
6. Payment of civil servants salary.

COMPUTERS IN INSURANCE

In the insurance industry, some of the most important uses of computer vision and artificial intelligence
are risk management for policies that are already in place, risk estimation for new policies, claims
management, and real-time monitoring of assets or processes.

TYPES OF INSURANCE

1. Marine insurance

2. Fire insurance

3. Accident insurance

4. Life insuranc

5. Fidelity insurance

6. Agricultural (crop) insurance

COMPUTERS AND MEDICAL PROFESSION

The use of computer in medicine has been more pronounced in the area of diagnosis and therapy
otherwise known as "Auto Doctors". These "Auto doctors" are used tit homes, schools, business
organization, etc, the success of this concept is attributed to the advert of the fifth generation of
computers especially the expert system Artificial, Intelligence, Patter and Voice Recognition. To this
effect) Britain the first voice-operated computer in surgery took place November 1999.

SOME APPLICATIONS OF COMPUTER IN MEDICAL PROFESSION

EXPERT SYSTEM (ES)

This is refers to application program that makes decision or solve problems in a particular field by using
knowledge and analytical rules, defined by experts in the field.

The adverts of Al, ES neural networks and robotics, have become computer terms to express the defacto
statement" computer is able to posses innate characteristics of human intelligence". Artificial
Intelligence (Al) is an expert system that deals with the computer simulating intelligence behavior in
areas of speech recognition, creation response and drawing inference from past records.

HEALTH INFORMATION SYSTEM (HIS)/ELECTRONIC PATIENT RECORDS/MEDICAL RECORDS

Individuals develop most packages in this area as automated medical records system and some through
the assistance of UNESCO, UNDP and the Nigerian Finish project. Whenever a person becomes a patient
in a hospital, records of previous symptoms treatments prescribed and reactions to follows during
his/her stay in the hospital. Medical records have until recent time been paper records. Physicians have
written their comments on paper, which becomes a part of the file. Hospital records are added to the
file and the entire collection becomes a medical history of the patient. Because it is often difficult to
quickly extract the key data in a person's medical records and because a physician's time must be shared
by so runny patients there have been efforts to develop system for computerization of medical records
most of the past problems in developing such system have stemmed from the fact that computers
accept input data only if it is in a restrictions as keying codes into terminals or filling in specified boxes
on data entry forms. In the hospitals, the procedure for adding to a patient's record is as follows: 1. The
physician, nurse or other qualified person dictates the information on telephone.

2. Any information dictated is recorded on a cassette at a central recording station.

3. Each completed cassette is staked in a special rack

4. A registered nurse listens to any cassette' identified as containing priority orders and handles order
immediately.

5. All tape cassettes are reviewed by a transcriptionist who keys contents into a computer video displays
unit making the new information a part of the computerized medical records system.

6.To be sure all crestial information was transcribed from cassettes to the computer records, a
registered nurse listens to cassette as he/she visually checks the information displayed on video display
unit.

COMPUTER AIDED SURGERY (CAS) Robotic surgery is the process whereby a robot actually carries oi
surgical procedure under the control of nothing other than computer program. Although a surgeon
almost certainly will be Involved in the planning of the procedure lo be performed and will, observe the
implementation of that plan, the execution of the plan will not be accomplished by them, but by the
robot. The advantages to be gained through automation are numerous A robot's motions can precisely
controlled and constrained through its programming, results in undeviating trajectories, high accuracies
with predicts velocities and accelerations with no overshoot. As expected when dealing with automated
processes, the benefits of repeatability reliability are inherent. An improvement is also experienced in
terms of time. Unlike a human surgeon, a robotic one will not hesitate before each step, contemplating
the possible outcomes of the next me Some might say that this is a disadvantage of robotic surgery,
these outcomes will have been considered and reconsidered I surgeons in the pre-operative phase and
so not require further deliberation. Others may have the opinion that time will be wasted on the
planning of the surgical procedure and on the imaging requirements. These, however, are necessary
steps of any proposed surgery and, anyhow, the time saved in both the quicker procedure and in the
reduced recuperation time will any increase in pre-operative stage. In order to look at the different
issues involve the robotic fulfillment of an operation, the separate sections typical robotic surgery is
listed below:

1. Surgical Planning

2. Surgical Navigation

3. Surgical Treatment

4. Surgical Training

NANOTECHNOLOGY

Some robots can be as small as or smaller than human cells. This is the field of The use of microscopic
robots emerging as the next technological revolution- It looks at built materials and devices with atomic
precision. Imagine the broad implications for the future of medicine

COMPUTERIZED BILLING SYSTEM

Billing System was developed to meet the challenge of automating, the processes required to fulfilling
the simplified billing concept ns put forward by federal government. The idea being that patient can
virtually be pared, the inconvenience of co-coordinating is sometimes mounds of bills for inpatients
services by assigning the task to a billing agents. The billing agent will be responsible for the collection of
doctor/hospital account, claim benefits from Medicare/health funds and then forward remittances to
satisfy the debts of service providers The patient becomes transparent to the whole ordeal bar a
statement of progress. They can then carry on the important task of convalescing at home without the
administrative worries. The concept is sound however the reality is that the processes involve to
manually completing the tasks (Partially computerized) are labour intensive and ns such expensive.
There is no doubt that it is good for the patient, a MM vice that all caring health providers would like to
extend to all hospital inpatients. The solution to this dilemma is SimBill. Note: Public Hospitals can take
advantage of well-needed Bed Fees generated from private patient funds Cover. Patient's gap also
covered by Health Funds therefore no cost to patient hence conversion from public to private status is
not resisted (or patient changing back to public status is eliminated)

COMPUTERASAN AUDIT TOOL

THE PRESENT DAY auditing started years age in a form. In those days the receipts and payments of an
industry were read to the hearing of an Individual. The word Auditing was derived from the Latin
"AUDIRE meaning "TO HEAR". Therefore the individual to whom the receipts and payments of an
organization were read was called the auditor. In the present day computer as been integrated to this
field due to the complexity in the task an auditor needs to perform.

IMPACTS OF COMPUTER IN AUDITING:

1. Documentation of all books of account of the organization.

2. He/She should ensure that the book of account in his system is secure by password.

3. With the aid of Network. He can receive notice of all books of accounts, Vouchers, and documents at
a faster rate with ease.

4. The computer can be use to receive notice of meeting by the organization

5. New and modern ways of auditing can be detected with the aid of Internet

6. Due to the ability of the computer system correcting mistakes lesser or no errors were made while
auditing

Computer in Banking Industry

Computers play a main role in various aspects of banks and Banking Industry. Computers have
transformed banking life in numerous ways, revolutionizing the banking experience, learning, medical,
banking etc process across all levels. Here in this article we are provide some key Role of computer in
banks which has changed the bank life very effectively and positively.

“Uses of Computer in Banking Industry” are as follows :-

1.) Transaction Processing:

Computers handle daily transactions like deposits, withdrawals, fund transfers, and loan processing
swiftly and accurately. This efficiency ensures faster service for customers.

2.) Online Banking:

Banking services are accessible 24/7 through online platforms. Customers can check account balances,
transfer funds, pay bills, and manage investments from anywhere with an internet connection.

3.) ATMs:

Automated Teller Machines rely on computer systems to facilitate cash withdrawals, deposits, balance
inquiries, and other services without the need for human intervention.

4.) Risk Management:

Advanced computer algorithms help banks assess and manage risks by analyzing vast amounts of data to
detect fraud, predict market trends, and determine creditworthiness.

5.) Customer Relationship Management (CRM):

Banks use computer systems to track customer interactions, preferences, and behaviors. This helps in
providing personalized services and targeted marketing.

6.) Data Analysis and Reporting:

Computers analyze financial data to generate reports, assess performance, comply with regulations, and
make strategic decisions.

7.) Mobile Banking:

Mobile applications on smartphones and tablets allow customers to perform banking transactions on
the go, providing convenience and accessibility.

8.) Security:

Computers are crucial in implementing robust security measures like encryption, firewalls, and bio
metric authentication to safeguard sensitive financial information and prevent cyber threats.

9.) Loan Processing:

Automated systems speed up loan origination, underwriting, and approval processes, making it more
efficient for both customers and banks.

10.) Investment Management:

Computer systems assist in managing investment portfolios, analyzing market trends, and executing
trades in real-time.

Types of Computer Used in Banks

There are various types of computer , servers and machines used in banks and its daily banking industry
activity. Here we are present you most used and reliable computer machines which provide you world
class banking experience.

Some ‘Types of Computer Used in Banks’ are :-

1. Mainframe Computers
2. Servers
3. ATMs (Automated Teller Machines)
4. Desktop Computers
5. Laptops and Tablets

COMPUTER IN ACCOUNTING ENVIRONMENT.

Information technology helps in the mitigation and better control of accounting risks and at the same
time brings along technology risks. Computerized information systems have special attributes that make
it useful in accounting section. The followings are the applications of computer in accounting
environment:
Purchase ledger system: The purchase requisition order, receipts and invoice are produced without
problem. The computer is also used for purchase ledger and to produce a purchase analysis sheet.

Sales ledger system: The sales invoice will be posted to the customer's ledger a statement for customer
and a sum sheet or sales analysis.

Payroll system: The computer will prepare the payroll to know the wages, tax and pension contributions
and insurance, using inputs like time sheets, details of Overtime worked.

Nominal ledgers system: The nominal ledger, trial balance wij prepared from journal entries

Stock control system: The computer will process data quickly I make available information on stock level
and rate of stock turn over

Reconciliation: The computer will speed the preparation of bank reconciliation statement by running a
cashbook fife against the file containing details from

COMPUTER IN BUSINESS

Business establishments are pre occupied with the problem of Making/maximizing profit. This is
dependent on effective and reliable management decision and planning via the availability of accurate,
current and timely information. Computer is used in business sector diverse ways but essentially for:
Billing sales/purchasing order processing, financial control/accounting system, etc it has among others
the following benefits and problems Also, communications networks have been developed that allow
computer to be linked to local, regional and national database (where necessary). This has made it hard
to think of any small business where no use could be found for a microcomputer For example:

Estate Agents: They needs computer to store and frequently retrieve details of as large number of
properties for sales Shops: They needs computer to keep stock, prepare sales analysis and VAT records,
etc.

Shipping Companies: Uses computer for planning routes and to optimize cargo loading and storage.

Solicitors: Use computer to prepare standard Legal documents.

BENEFITS OF USING A COMPUTER IN BUSINESS

High speed of operation: Compute; operates at a very high. The speed of operation can be measured in
seconds. Nano second, Pico seconds, trillion of seconds, the speed of operation commends it to many
users.

Accurate processing (accuracy): Information produced by computer is accurate especially when the
concept of GIGO is maintained. GIGO means Garbage In Garbage Out. This is a concept that denotes that
when you enter wrong data into the computer you will produce wrong information.

Based on this concept, computer produces accurate information,

Flexibility: This is the ability of the computer to handle several information's at the same time. Such
operations include online system application, Real time system. Multi programming, Multi linking, Muiti
processing etc.

Large volume processing: Computer can process large volume of data in a relatively short Period of time.
It is used in MIS (Management Information System): Computer can be used in MIS for decision-making
purposes. Hence management at a strategic level can use computer to effect records, profits & loss
ratics, sales forecast, simulation models etc.

Reliable and efficient: When large volume processing is required computer produces reliable and
efficient information compared to that produced by manual means.

PROBLEMS/FACTORS MILITATING AGAINST EFFECTIVE UTILIZATIONS OF COMPUTERS IN BUSINESS

1. It may be technologically obsolete before long as computer technologies changes very fast.

2. The negatives effect of computer crimes/viruses

3. The cost of acquisition may be too high.

4. The problem of (power) electricity.

5. Illiteracy/lack of adequate manpower.

6. It requires high cost of maintenance

7. It could lead to retrenchment of staff rendered redundant by its introduction.

COMPUTER BUREAU SERVICES

The computer bureau is an independent organization that renders computer and allied services to the
general public. It serves as a consultant to the small-scale industry in terms of information Technology
(IT) services. The processing needs of an organization may be insignificant that it would not be feasible
economically to acquire a computer system. Therefore, such services are referred to the Computer
Bureau.

However, the trend now is such that every individual should be able to afford the computer system
because of the drastic reduction in cost. There are lots of application packages around that are user-frit
which an individual can install and use with ease. Therefore, than placing the company's data at the
disposal of the service bi the various data processing needs can be accomplished in-house; though the
service bureau can still be useful in terms of advice selection of IT equipment and automation.

Computer In Education

Gaining basic knowledge as well as skills to operate computers to perform better jobs. Computer in
education is all about extending to its various branches of study in different fields & sectors.

A computer, along with an internet facility is the most powerful device that children can use to learn
new skills & abilities in education. The computer plays a significant role in each and every field of life.
They help us in several ways.

For example, they find applications in medicine, industrial processes, the aviation industry, making bills
in various big shops & malls, creating presentation slides in application software for making notes &
delivering lectures in colleges, universities, and a lot more. In short, not only in just one, but the
Computer plays an all-rounded role in the field of education of students.

How does Computer help in the education process?

Innovation in Computer technology has a profound impact on education. It forms a part of the school
curriculum as it is an essential part of every individual today. Computer education in schools plays a
major noteworthy role in the career development of young children.

Computers in Teaching & Learning Process (CAL)

Being actively used in various educational institutes like schools, colleges & big universities, computers
are used to aid the learning process of students. Professors in colleges & teachers in schools take the
help of audio-visual techniques to prepare lesson plans for children. For this, they use Microsoft
PowerPoint to prepare electronic presentations about their lectures.

These electronic presentations can be shown on multimedia and sound projectors in classrooms. It is an
interesting and simple method to learn for students. Multimedia (Sight and sound) presentations are
easy to deliver for teachers also as these presentations spare a great deal of time and effort.

Research

Computers can be used for online education & research. With the help of the internet, students can find
useful information about their projects, and assignments and also can take useful help from other
researchers as they store & organize their research materials on computers.

Computer-Based Training (CBT)

In CBT (Computer Based Training), various projects & educational programs are prepared or set up with
the assistance of expert educators and audio-visual media help. These educational programs are
generally set up in the shape of lectures on a specific subject/ topic & are given on CDs. Students can
learn when they wish at their homes.

Benefits Of Computer Education:

It enhances creativity & thinking skills.

Provides efficient & better use of IT Technology.

Proves beneficial for career aspiration.

Improves research work & helps in communicating with different education providers.

Gives instant information on any topic in just a single click, & many more.

Uses Of Computers in Education

1. Huge & Organized Store Of Information

Vast or Immense storage is yet another great characteristic of a computer. Students and teachers can
download and store a lot of educational materials, books, presentations, lecture/ address notes,
question papers, and so on on computers.

Students can find many different ways to solve a certain problem given to them. Through the Computer,
they can interact with people having the same issues & decisions.

2. Quick Processing Of Data

Speed is the fundamental attribute of a computer. We can easily find information with just a single
touch of a button.

3. Audio-Visual Guides in the Teaching Process For A Viable Learning

One of the primary uses of computers in education is ‘Access to the Internet’ for information search
about any topic.

Appealing and Better introduction (presentation) of data through applications programming software
like Microsoft PowerPoint to introductions for creating splendid presentations for lectures & notes.

4. Parents Can Know Their Ward’s Progress

The Computer has helped parents & guardians a lot as they can likewise know by checking every minute
progress of their children through computers and the web by browsing the school’s website. They can
check different assessment results, attendance reports, participation in curricular and co-curricular
activities, and significantly more.

5. Quick Communication & Correspondence

Another main advantage of using computers in the education field is the improvement in the quality of
the teaching-learning process and communication between students & teachers. For this, they use
Microsoft PowerPoint to prepare electronic presentations about their lectures.

Computer revolutionizes the way of study while making education smoother and quicker. It also
connects us to different sources, which show us different ways to understand a particular topic or idea.
In general, a computer has helped the education world and also has changed the way we work & learn.

AUTOMATED SYSTEMS IN FARMING

Farming used to be a labour intensive: industry with large workforce That all change with the advent of
mechanization followed by automation machines now does much of the work under the supervision of a
few people. Your granny will remember cornfields from her youth wheat was harvested and threshed by
hand-The straw would be tied into small stokes and left in groups to the sun. It all relied on hard manual
labor Entire communities get involved with the harvest and indeed many school holidays al times of year
when it was accepted that children were needed to on the farm. In Scotland, they sometimes called the
'tattie' holiday time when children were traditionally needed to help during the pc) harvest. Then, in the
last 1940s, the combine harvester was invented and Improved, a machine that could cut the wheat,
thresh it and collect the grain in its tanks. One man, driving the combine harvester could do the work of
many. Since then, a variety of machines been developed for the semi-automatic cultivation and
preparation the soil. A tractor with the necessary equipment attached drive one man alone can cultivate
and prepare a field for seeding.

How far away is the day when robotic tractors and other equipment do the job completely
automatically? The technology is ready but dare we set mobile robots loose in the countryside? A
robotic sheepdog to round up the sheep is under development. We now have mobile irrigation systems
with robotic heads that measure wind speed and direction and are able to water crop precisely and
effectively. Sprinklers of the future will be able to travel around n field and deliver water to where it is
needed. Milking machines alleviated the dairy farmer's workload and made milkmaid a job title of the
past. Tubes would be attached by hand to the cows' udders and it would be milked by machine. A
robotic system has been development that attached the milking cups to the udders and it would be
milked by machi machine. A robotic system has been developed that attaches the milking cups to the
udders using a robot arm under the guidance of a computer program and video cameras that enable it
to see what it is doing. Machines are used for the automatic washing and grinding of farm produce. Your
granny may have accepted mud covered potatoes or carrots, caterpillar infested cabbages, but not the
homemaker of today. People not only expect fresh, clean, well- shaped produce, neatly packed in
coritalners but also graded according to size and quality. Eggs, fruit and vegetables of many types may
be graded and packaged by machine. Robotics can be in mushroom harvesting. Video cameras allow the
selection of mushrooms of over à certain minimal size. Robotic arms with suction of cups pick the
mushrooms. These can then be automatically trimmed and packed. The technology is not in widespread
use because the benefits do not yet outweigh the costs. Increased automation over the years on food
production, preparation and packaging brought about much change in rural communities. Manual farm
workers were made redundant in droves, force to retain and look for otfier forms of work, often in
cities. Farmer now relies heavily on machines, and these machines in turn, rely on skilled technicians for
maintenance and repair. Agricultural employees working along side automated or semi-automated
machines face greater risks of accidents involving machines. Automated or semi automated farming is
far from a reality in many part of the world. Labor is still cheap in third world countries, with much of
the work on the farm being performed manually. A large capital investment is needed to purchase the
equipment. It is only worthwhile making this investment if its reduces production costs in the long term.

ELECTRONIC TEXT PRODUCTION

Traditionally, manuscript-publishing process involved graphic artists using pencils, paper and typewriters
to undertake editing, retying. composing. proofreading and cutting. Pasting and photographing the final
page format before platters could be made for actual of printing. Word processing. desktop publishing,
computer-aided design and computerized page formatting have however, revolutionized the way
newspapers, books and magazine produced in the 90s. It is now customary for newspaper reporters and
writers to directly enter and edit their stories on computers. Once all copy is entered into computer,
pages are automatically form; according to type and spacing specifications. The impact (and potential
impact) culturally of electronic text on our concepts of language, books and publishing are
immeasurable. Electronic texts have the capacity to contain large amounts of information. There is a
possibility of a split in the publishing world into that which can easily be adapted electronically, and
which cannot. 'Look-it-up" publications immediately well suited to the use of electronic text. The world
of fiction publishing, however, does not transfer so well. Electronic books can aid fiction works to some
extent, by having greater capacity for a number of works (for example, a series) and by being more
durable in terms of hardware. However, the actual content of the book is not as open to adjustment
exceptions might include academic course texts with hypertext adjustore background references, etc.
One developmem, with a field may then be a new bread of authors who write electronic fiction, with
alternative then be a neharacters, and situations within the novel is not ready forth the view of Larry
Bielawski, who maintains that the market is not ready for mass consumption of electronic books and
that personalized commercial publications may instead be acceptable." A change in medium is a change
in message"

ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRONICTEXT PRODUCTION

1. Interactive and nonlinear: Non-text elements such as tables, artwork and even video can be
incorporated into the documents, and these can be navigated in a number of ways. It aids serendipity
the discovery of information that would not normally be encountered. Separate users can also link
individual's documents to create larger files

2. It saves money: It is more cost effective in terms of production, packaging and distribution.

3. It saves time: It allows easier and faster access to search for and extract information, and there is little
or no necessity to browse unwanted text as large amounts of information can be cut through by
methods similar to indexing

PACKAGING ELECTRONIC BOOKS

These are a viable format as the concept so familiar to users and they are adaptable to hypertext and
other interactive elements. Electronic books already exit in the form offhand-held spell checkers, foreign
language phrase books and treasury.

INDUSTRIAL USES OF COMPUTER

Computers have come a long way since their early prototypes. The first computers were the size of
whole rooms and were used mainly in Government. Over time, as technology progressed, industrial
computers were designed for specific uses in different sectors such as automotive, aerospace, marine,
oil and gas, mining, and manufacturing.

Today, industrial computers are used in a variety of ways depending on the industry. In the automotive
industry, for example, industrial computers are used for design and engineering work, quality control
and testing, production management, and fleet management. In the aerospace industry, they are used
for design work, simulation and modelling, system engineering and integration, aircraft maintenance
and repair, and flight operations.

A Little Bit of History on Computer in the Industry

custom-web-development-for-business_newThe history of industrial computing is the story of

technology evolving to meet the needs of businesses and industry. In the early days of computing,
machines were large and expensive, and their use was limited to a few highly specialised tasks.
However, over time, computing has become more affordable and accessible, and it is now an integral
part of industrial operations around the world.
One of the earliest applications of computing in industry was in the area of manufacturing. In the early
days of mass production, factories were often inefficient and produced large amounts of waste. To help
address these issues, factories began to adopt automated systems that used computers to control the
production process. These systems helped to optimise factory operations, reduce waste, and improve
product quality.

Computers have also been used extensively in the area of logistics and transportation. For example,
modern shipping companies use computer systems to manage their inventory and track shipments
around the world. This helps to ensure that goods are delivered on time and without incident.

In more recent years, the industrial computer has also begun to play a role in the area of energy
production. For example, oil and gas companies are using computer systems to manage their drilling
operations and improve extraction rates. This helps to reduce costs and improve efficiency.

Overall, it is clear that computing has had a significant impact on industrial operations around the world.
With its ability to help optimise processes, track shipments, and manage resources, computing has
become an essential tool for businesses of all sizes. Thanks to the industrial computer, businesses can
now operate in more challenging environments, work more efficiently and produce products of the
highest quality.

How Industrial Computers are used in Harsh Environments

Embedded-PCs-for-harsh-environmentComputers in industry are often subjected to extreme

temperatures, either very hot or very cold. In order to protect these systems from the adverse effects of
these temperatures, specialised industrial computers have been developed.

In hot environments, an industrial computer needs to be able to dissipate heat effectively. This is done
by using powerful fans and heat sinks, as well as materials that can withstand high temperatures. The
internal components of a computer are also designed to be as efficient as possible, so that they produce
minimal heat.

In cold environments, an industrial PC needs to be able to operate in low temperatures without freezing.
This is done by using specialised components that work in low temperatures, as well as insulation and
heaters that keep the system warm. The internal components of a computer are also designed to be as
efficient as possible, so that they produce minimal heat.
By using specialised industrial computers, businesses can protect their valuable data and equipment
from the adverse effects of extreme temperatures.

Wet environments mean that industrial computers are exposed to moisture and humidity. This could
cause problems with the equipment, as well as with the data that is stored on it. Dry environments, on
the other hand, meant that the computer was not exposed to moisture, but it could be subject to dust
and other contaminants.

How Industrial Computers are Used in Different Sectors

Food and Beverage:

The food and beverage sector is a challenging environment for technology due to the rigorous hygiene
and temperature requirements. Our industrial PCs are made to meet these demands, with features such
as anti-bacterial casing and resistance to corrosion and vandalism. The panels are easy to incorporate
into the production process, making them an ideal choice for busy factories.

Power and Utilities:

Industrial computers can play a significant role in the power and utilities sector by helping to increase
energy provision and efficiency while protecting the environment. In order to achieve this, it is
important to have a clear understanding of the needs of the sector and how industrial computers can
help meet those needs. Our team has years of experience in the industry and can provide tailored
solutions that meet your specific requirements. We understand the importance of reliability and
durability in this sector, and our products are designed to withstand even the harshest environments.

Rail and Transport:

Rail, commercial, and public transport all have their own unique challenges when it comes to
technology. This is especially true for the systems that support these areas, like industrial computers.
Industrial computers help make these systems more reliable and efficient while also making them safer.

Military, Defence, Marine and Navy:

At DSL, we have a good reputation for working with many specialist defence contractors in the UK,
Europe and beyond. Our work includes providing both commercial off the shelf (COTS) and design
solutions that meet the specific demands of military and defence environments. This work has allowed
us to become familiar with the needs of these environments, including the need for rugged performance
and reliability.

The industrial computer is used extensively in the Navy and Marine environments. They are relied on to
provide critical information and support various systems and processes. In order to meet the unique
demands of these environments, industrial computers must be able to operate in tough conditions and
withstand shocks, vibrations, and other harsh environmental factors.

IMPORTANCE OF COMPUTER IN THE INDUSTRY

Computers play a crucial role in the industry, providing a wide range of benefits and increasing efficiency
in various operations. Here are some key reasons highlighting the importance of computers in the
industry:

1. Automation: Computers enable automation of tasks, allowing industries to streamline processes and
reduce human intervention. This helps in increasing productivity, reducing errors, and saving time.

2. Data Management: Computers facilitate the storage, organization, and analysis of large amounts of
data. They enable industries to manage their information more effectively, making it easier to access
and retrieve data quickly when needed.

3. Communication: Computers play a pivotal role in connecting different departments, branches, and
even different organizations through networks and the internet. This enhances communication and
collaboration, enabling teams to work together efficiently and share information seamlessly.

4. Precision and Accuracy: Computers are highly reliable and accurate in performing complex
calculations and measurements. This is particularly important in industries such as engineering,
manufacturing, and scientific research, where precision is crucial for accurate results.

5. Innovation and Research: Computers have revolutionized research and development activities,
allowing industries to conduct simulations, perform virtual experiments, and explore innovative ideas
without the need for physical prototypes or manual testing.

6. Monitoring and Control: Computers are used to monitor and control various processes and systems in
industries, such as in manufacturing plants, power grids, and traffic management systems. They ensure
smooth operations, detect anomalies, and allow for real-time adjustments.
7. Resource Optimization: Computers help in optimizing the utilization of resources such as raw
materials, energy, and time. Through data analysis and modeling, industries can identify inefficiencies,
improve resource allocation, and reduce waste.

8. Decision Making: Computers enable industries to gather and analyze vast amounts of data, providing
insights that aid in decision-making processes. Advanced algorithms and artificial intelligence can help in
identifying patterns, predicting outcomes, and making informed choices.

9. Enhanced Productivity: Computers assist in automating routine tasks, reducing manual effort and
human error, thereby increasing overall productivity. They enable employees to focus on more complex
and creative work, leading to improved efficiency and output.

10. Global Connectivity: Computers and the internet have enabled global connectivity, allowing
industries to connect with suppliers, customers, and partners worldwide. This has expanded market
reach, facilitated international collaborations, and enabled global business transactions.

COMPUTER IN THE HOME

Home computers were a class of microcomputers that entered the market in 1977 and became common
during the 1980s. They were marketed to consumers as affordable and accessible computers that, for
the first time, were intended for the use of a single, non-technical user. These computers were a distinct
market segment that typically cost much less than business, scientific, or engineering-oriented
computers of the time, such as those running CP/M or the IBM PC, and were generally less powerful in
terms of memory and expandability. However, a home computer often had better graphics and sound
than contemporary business computers. Their most common uses were word processing, playing video
games, and programming.

Home computers were usually sold already manufactured in stylish metal or plastic enclosures.
However, some home computers also came as commercial electronic kits, like the Sinclair ZX80, which
were both home and home-built computers since the purchaser could assemble the unit from a kit.

Advertisements in the popular press for early home computers were rife with possibilities for their
practical use in the home, from cataloging recipes to personal finance to home automation, but these
were seldom realized in practice. For example, using a typical 1980s home computer as a home
automation appliance would require the computer to be kept powered on at all times and dedicated to
this task. Personal finance and database use required tedious data entry.
By contrast, advertisements in the specialty computer press often simply listed specifications, assuming
a knowledgeable user who already had applications in mind. If no packaged software was available for a
particular application, the home computer user could program one—provided they had invested the
requisite hours to learn computer programming, as well as the idiosyncrasies of their system. Since most
systems arrived with the BASIC programming language included on the system ROM, it was easy for
users to get started creating their own simple applications. Many users found programming to be a fun
and rewarding experience, and an excellent introduction to the world of digital technology.

The line between 'business' and 'home' computer market segments vanished completely once IBM PC
compatibles became commonly used in the home, since now both categories of computers typically use
the same processor architectures, peripherals, operating systems, and applications. Often, the only
difference may be the sales outlet through which they are purchased. Another change from the home
computer era is that the once-common endeavor of writing one's own software programs has almost
vanished from home computer use.

SOCIO-ECONOMIC USES OF COMPUTER

Computers have become an integral part of modern society and are used extensively in various socio-
economic sectors. Here are some of the socio-economic uses of computers:

1. Education: Computers have revolutionized the education sector by providing access to a vast amount
of educational resources. They are used for research, online learning, collaborative learning, and
educational software for skill development.

2. Communication: Computers enable communication across different geographical locations through

email, video conferencing, social media platforms, and instant messaging applications. This has
increased connectivity, improved business communication, and facilitated social interactions.

3. Business and Commerce: Computers are extensively used in businesses for various functions such as
accounting, inventory management, payroll management, customer relationship management (CRM),
data analysis, and online transactions. They have improved efficiency and productivity in operations.

4. Employment and Career Growth: Computers have created new employment opportunities and
careers in sectors like IT, software development, web design, digital marketing, data analytics, and e-
commerce. They have also improved job prospects and provided skill development opportunities.
5. Entertainment and Media: Computers have transformed the entertainment and media industry
through online streaming platforms, digital marketing, video production, gaming, and graphic design.
They have revolutionized content consumption and creation.

6. Healthcare: Computers have improved patient care, diagnosis, treatments, and medical research.
They are used in electronic health records (EHR), telemedicine, medical imaging, drug discovery, and
health monitoring systems, leading to better healthcare outcomes.

7. Government Services: Computers are extensively used in government administration for functions
such as record-keeping, data analysis, citizen services, taxation, public safety, and governance. They
have increased efficiency, transparency, and accessibility in public administration.

8. Research and Development: Computers play a crucial role in scientific research and development.
They are used in modeling and simulation, data analysis, research collaboration, and innovation. They
have accelerated progress in various scientific fields.

9. Agriculture: Computers are used in agriculture for precision farming, crop monitoring, weather
forecasting, soil analysis, and yield optimization. They improve productivity, reduce waste, and increase
profitability in the agricultural sector.

10. Transportation and Logistics: Computers are used in the management and optimization of
transportation systems, logistics operations, traffic control, route planning, and vehicle tracking. They
improve efficiency, reliability, and safety in the transportation sector.

In summary, computers have numerous socio-economic uses across different sectors, transforming the
way we live, work, communicate, and interact with the world. They have revolutionized education,
business, communication, entertainment, healthcare, government services, research, agriculture,
transportation, and many other aspects of our lives.

MIS-USE OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

As good and beneficential the society, as computer have been, their misuses and potentials for
criminals, are borne outby the following

1.Perpetration of crime and fraud

2. Over-dependence
3. Job losses

4. Violation of Privacy

COMPUTER VIRUS

WHAT'S A VIRUS?

Computer viruses are called viruses because they share some of the traits of biological viruses. A
computer virus passes from computer to computer like a biological virus passes from person to person.
There are similarities at a deeper level, as well. A biological virus is not a living thing. A virus is a
fragment of inside a protective jacket. A virus has no way to do anything but to reproduce itself, it is not
alive. Instead, a biological virus must Inject Its DMA into a cell. The viral DMA then uses the cell's existing
machinery to reproduces itself. In some cases the cell fills with new viral ral particles until it bursts,
releasing the virus. In other cases, the new virus particles bud off the cell one at a lime, and the cell
remains alive. A computer virus shares some of this trait. A computer virus must piggyback on top of
some other program or document in order to get executed. Once it is running it then able to infect other
programs or document. Obviously, the analogy between computer and biological viruses stretches
things a bit, but there are enough similarities that the name sticks. A virus is an activities Infections
computer program that destroys valuable data and program, it is destructive software. A virus places
itself into other application and program and spread the infection.

ORIGINSOFVIRUS

People create viruses. A person has to write the code, test it to make sure it spread properly and release
the virus. A person also design the virus attack phase, whether it is a silly message or destruction of hard
disk, so why do you people do it? There are at least three reasons:

1. The third reason probably involves s bragging rights, or thrill of doing it: Sort of like Mount Everest.
The mountain is there, so someone is compelled to climb it. Most viruses seem to miss the point that
they cause damage to real people with their creations. Destroying on a person's hard disk is real
damage. Forcing the people inside a large company to waste thousands of hours cleaning up after n
virus is real damage; even a silly message damage is real damage because a person then has to waste
time getting rid of it. For this reason, the legal system is getting much harsher in punishing the people
who create viruses.
2 The second reason has to do with the thrill of watching things blow up: Many people have a
'fascinating with things like explosions and car wrecks. When gunpowder and then built bigger and
bigger bombs unlit he either got bored or did serious damage to himself Creating a virus that spreads
quickly is a little that it creates a bomb inside a computer, and the more computers the more computer
that get infected the more "fun" the explosion.

3. The first is the same psychology that drives vandals and arsonists: Why would someone Want to bust
the window on someone else's car, or spray-paint signs on buildings or burn down a beautiful forest?
For some people that seems to be a thrill. If that sort of person happens to know computer
programming, then he or she may funnel energy into creation destructive viruses.

HOW VIRUS SPREAD

Early viruses were pieces of code attached to a common program like a popular game or a popular word
processor. A person might download an infected game from a bulletin board and run it. A virus like tins
is a small piece of code embedded in a larger, legitimate program. Any virus is designed to run first when
(he legitimate program gets executed. The virus loads itself around to see if it can find any other I
programs on the disk If it can find one It modifies it to add the virus's code to the unsuspecting program.
Then the virus launches the "real program'. The user really has no way to know that the virus ever ran.
Unfortunately, the virus has now reproduced itself, so two programs are now infected. The next time
either of those programs gets executed, they infect other programs, and the cycle continues. If one of
the infected programs is given to another person on a floppy or if it is uploaded to a bulletin board, then
other programs get infected. This is how the virus spreads. The spreading part is the infecting phase of
the virus. Viruses wouldn't be so violent despised if all they did was replicate them Unfortunately, most
viruses also have some destructive attack phase where they do some damage. Some sort of trigger will
activate the attack phase, and the virus will then "do something" anything from printing a silly message
on the screen to erasing all of your data's The triggers might be a specific date or the number of times
the virus has been replicated or something similar. As virus creator got more sophisticated, they learned
new tricks. One important trick was the ability to load viruses into memories so they could keep running
in the back ground as long remained on. This gave viruses the much morn effective ways to replicate
themselves. Another trick was the ability to infect boot sector on floppy disk and hard disk. The boot
sector is a small program that is the first part of the operating system that the computer loads. The boot
sector contains a tiny program that tells the computer how to load the rest of the operating system. By
putting its codes in the boot sector, a virus can guarantee it gets executed. It can load itself into memory
immediately and it is able to run whenever the computer is on. Boot sector viruses can affect the boot
sector of any floppy disk inserted in the machine, and on collect campuses where a lot of people share
machine they spared like a wild fire. In general, both executable and boot sector viruses are not very
threatening any more. The first reason for a decline has been the huge size of today's program. Nearly
any program you buy today comes on compact disk Compact disk cannot be modifying, and that made
the viral infection of CD impossible. The programs are so big that the only to move around is to buy the
CD. People certainly cannot carry application around on floppy disk like they did in the 1980's, when
floppy full of programs are treaded like baseball cards. Boot sector virus has only declined because
operating system now protects the boot sector. Both boot sector viruses and executable viruses are still
possible but they are a lot harder now and they don't spread nearly as quickly as they once could. Call it
"shrinking habitat," if you Want to use a biological analogy. The environment of the floppy disk, small
programs and weak operating system made the virus possible in the 190's, but that environmental niche
has been largely eliminated by huge executables, unchangeable CDs and better operating system
safeguards.

EFFECT OF COMPUTER VIRUS

Computer viruses are mysterious and grab our attention. On the one hand, viruses show us how
vulnerable we are. A properly engineered virus can have an amazing effect on the worldwide internet.
On the other hand, they show how sophisticated and interconnected human being have become. For
example, the things making big news right now are the MS Blaster worms. The Melissa virus, which
became a global phenomenon in March 1999, was so powerful that it forced Microsoft and a number of
other very large companies to completely turn off their e-mail system until the virus could be contained.
The I LOVE YOU virus, Virus has a lot of adverse effect on the computer system. The well-known effects
of virus usually are loss of large of data. Some other effects are spotlighted here under.

1. Corruption of data in files

2. increase in the size of files

3. Improper display on the visual display unit (VDU)

4. Defection of files on the disks

5. Reduction in the speed of system.

ANTI-VIRUS PROGRAM: These are programs written by programmers to detect and remove viruses from
a computer. For example, virus scans from McAfee associated to check RAM and files for any activity
and reports it. Thereafter, you can either delete the infected file or let the program clean the files. Anti-
virus can also detect and clean virus for which the program was written for. Therefore, software can
detect only virus that are known as at when the software was written. Some virus scanners reside in the
memory and check for the entry of a virus after every input or output operation. On the detection of a
virus, a warning is displayed and all further operation is suspended. Examples of resident anti-virus
program are smart dog and Vsage.

Virus Protection

You can protect yourself against viruses with a few simple steps:

1. If you truly worried about traditional (as opposed to e-mail) viruses, you should be running a more
secure operating system like UNIX. You never hear about viruses on these operating systems because
the features keep viruses (and unwanted human visitors) away from your hard disk.

2. Make sure that the system is always booted from the hard disk or a virus-free, writes-protected
system disk

3. Always buy software from authorized selling agent

4. If you are using an unsecured operating system, then buying virus protection software is a nice
safeguard.

5. If you simply avoid programs from unknown sources (like the internet), and instead stick with
commercial software purchased on CDs you eliminate almost all of the risks from traditional viruses. In
addition, you should disable floppy disk booting most computers now allow you to do this, and that will
eliminate the risk of a boot sector virus coining from a floppy disk accidentally left in the drive.

6. Always used write-protect tabs on the diskettes that do not need data to be written on them.

7. Do not lend your program disk, as they come back infected. It you have to give them makes copy and
check for viruses or format disk when it is return

8. Avoid updating the date of your system to match a date on which viruses tend to attack like Friday 13"
9. Never run unknown program before making sine they have no virus

10. You should make sure that Macro Virus protection is enabled in all Microsoft applications, and you
should NEVER run macros in a document unless you know what they do. There is seldom a good reason
to add macros to a document, so avoiding all macros is a great policy.

COMPUTER WORM

Computer worms are a serious threat to both organizations and individual users. As autonomous
malware programs, they can replicate and spread across networks, exploiting vulnerabilities and causing
significant damage.

What is a computer worm?

A computer worm is a standalone malicious program that replicates itself to spread to other computers,
often without human interaction. Unlike viruses, worms do not need to attach themselves to an existing
program to cause havoc.

How computer worms operate and spread

Computer worms have a life cycle that follows a certain set of steps. These steps give us valuable
insights into how they operate, giving us an edge in the ongoing battle against them.

Replication

Worms first create multiple copies of themselves, using each infected host to spread further. This
replication is often unnoticed until the worm has multiplied significantly.

Network scanning

Next, the worm scans the network for other machines to infect, identifying vulnerabilities that it can
exploit.

Exploiting vulnerabilities

Once potential hosts have been identified, the worm exploits these vulnerabilities to infiltrate them.

Payload delivery
The payload, or the harmful part of the worm, is then delivered. This could be anything from deleting
files to stealing data or causing system instability.

Spreading mechanisms

Worms can spread in various ways, such as via email, file sharing, or even through hardware like USB
drives.

Continuous replication

The cycle then repeats, with the worm continuously replicating and spreading to new hosts.

Different types of computer worms

The sheer versatility of computer worms is a major part of their threat. Each variant is distinct in its
nature, method of propagation, and the potential harm it can cause.

Email worms – these worms spread via infected emails. Once an email is opened, the worm is activated
and can spread to other contacts.

File-sharing worms – these worms propagate through shared files or folders, typically in a network
environment.

Crypto worms – these encrypt files or data and demand a ransom in exchange for the decryption key.

Internet worms – these worms spread via internet connections, particularly through unsecured
networks.

Instant messaging worms – these worms use instant messaging platforms to spread to other users.

IRC worm – these use the Internet Relay Chat platform to propagate.

Network worm – these spread across local area networks (LAN) or wide area networks (WAN).

P2P worm – these worms spread through peer-to-peer networks, often disguised as desirable
downloads.
USB worms – these use removable storage devices to infect other computers.

Blended threat worms – these worms combine the characteristics of viruses, worms, and other malware
to maximize their destructive capabilities.

The possible effects of a worm attack

The effects of a computer worm attack can range from mild to frankly catastrophic, often depending on
the type of worm and its payload.

Traffic-related issues

Worms can cause severe network congestion and overload networks with their propagation activity,
generating a massive volume of traffic. This can also lead to bandwidth consumption, slowing down
network services.

System and data disruptions

Worms can lead to unpredictable behavior in systems, causing crashes and general instability. Some
worms are designed to delete or corrupt data on the infected machine, leading to data loss.

As worms replicate, they can consume hard drive space, potentially leading to further system instability
or crashes.

Unauthorized access and data theft

Many worms open backdoors for attackers, allowing them unauthorized access to infected machines.
This backdoor can also be used for stealing sensitive data from the infected machines.

Secondary attacks

Worms can use infected machines as part of a Distributed Denial of Service (DDoS) attack, overwhelming
a targeted server with traffic. In addition, some worms drop additional malware onto infected systems,
such as spyware or ransomware, for further exploitation.

Financial and reputational consequences

The costs of recovery, potential financial theft, loss of customers, and reputational damage due to a
worm attack can lead to significant financial losses for companies.

What is a real life example of a computer worm attack?

WannaCry worm

Unleashed in 2017, the WannaCry worm was a global ransomware attack that affected hundreds of
thousands of computers in over 150 countries. It exploited a vulnerability in Microsoft’s Server Message
Block protocol to spread rapidly across networks, encrypting files and demanding Bitcoin ransom
payments.

Conficker worm

First detected in 2008, the Conficker worm targeted Microsoft Windows operating systems with a
dictionary attack on administrator passwords, allowing it to spread and install additional malware. At its
peak, it infected millions of computers worldwide, leading to substantial disruption.

Slammer worm

Also known as Sapphire, the Slammer worm spread rapidly in 2003, doubling in size every 8.5 seconds at
its peak. It exploited a buffer overflow vulnerability in Microsoft SQL Server and Desktop Engine
database products, leading to significant Internet slowdowns and outages.

Stuxnet worm

Discovered in 2010, the Stuxnet worm is infamous for specifically targeting industrial control systems
used in Iran’s nuclear program. Stuxnet exploited several zero-day vulnerabilities and had the ability to
reprogram industrial control systems and hide changes, leading to physical damage of the machinery it
infected.

Mydoom worm

Emerging in 2004, the Mydoom worm is one of the fastest-spreading email worms in history. It was
distributed as an email attachment and, once opened, scanned the victim’s address book to propagate
further. It also opened a backdoor to the infected computer, allowing remote control.
How to identify a computer worm

Identifying a worm infection early can be the difference between a minor incident and a major disaster.

Unusual system behavior and modifications

Computers running slower than usual, crashing, or behaving erratically, along with unwarranted changes
to system settings or files, could indicate a worm infection.

Signs of unauthorized access

If you notice unexpected account activity, unauthorized access attempts, or unusual network activity
such as increased traffic or connection attempts, it may be the work of a worm.

Anomalous notifications

Excessive pop-ups, especially those urging you to perform certain actions, as well as increased antivirus
and security alerts, may indicate a worm infection.

How to remove a computer worm

Removing a worm from an infected system is often a tricky process, involving some or all of the
following steps:

Disconnect from the network – to prevent further spread, disconnect the infected system from the
network.

Identify the worm – use your antivirus software or other tools to identify the specific worm. Ensure your
antivirus software is updated to the latest version, as it may have new definitions to help remove the
worm.

Use antimalware tools – antimalware tools can often detect and remove threats that antivirus software
may miss.

Manual removal – in some cases, you may need to manually remove files or registry entries related to
the worm.
System cleanup – after removal, perform a thorough system cleanup and ensure all damage is repaired.

How to prevent computer worms

Prevention, as they say, is better than cure. And that certainly applies to computer worms. Stopping
them before they affect your systems is far better than trying to remove them.

Keep software and systems updated

Regularly update your operating system, software, and install patches. This ensures vulnerabilities that
worms could exploit are fixed. Keeping systems updated ensures the latest security patches are in place.

Use reliable antivirus software and firewalls

A reliable antivirus program can provide real-time protection against worms and other malware.
Firewalls can block unauthorized access and malicious traffic, adding an additional layer of protection.

Practice safe internet usage

Be wary of downloads. Only download files or software from trusted sources. Avoid clicking on
suspicious links or visiting unsecured websites. Worms often spread via malicious links or attachments,
so be on the lookout for anything suspicious.

Implement strong access control

Use strong, unique passwords and multi-factor authentication (MFA) to protect your systems from
unauthorized access.

Secure your network and communication protocols

Ensure your network is securely configured to prevent unauthorized access and minimize potential
attack vectors. Secure all communication protocols to prevent worms spreading via network
connections.

Employ comprehensive data protection strategies

Regularly back up critical data to mitigate the impact of a worm attack. Protect sensitive data with
encryption to reduce the risk of theft or corruption.
Deploy targeted security measures

Implement comprehensive endpoint security to guard against threats on all devices connected to your
network. Use secure email practices and tools to prevent worms spreading via email. Regularly patch
system vulnerabilities to prevent worms exploiting them to gain access.

Education

Educate users or employees about safe online practices and the dangers of worms. This is a critical step
in preventing the inadvertent spread of computer worms.

COMPUTER SECURITY

Computer security, cybersecurity, digital security or information technology security (IT security) is the
protection of computer systems and networks from attacks by malicious actors that may result in
unauthorized information disclosure, theft of, or damage to hardware, software, or data, as well as from
the disruption or misdirection of the services they provide.

The field is significant due to the expanded reliance on computer systems, the Internet, and wireless
network standards such as Bluetooth and Wi-Fi. It is also significant due to the growth of smart devices,
including smartphones, televisions, and the various devices that constitute the Internet of things (IoT).
Cybersecurity is one of the most significant challenges of the contemporary world, due to both the
complexity of information systems and the societies they support. Security is of especially high
importance for systems that govern large-scale systems with far-reaching physical effects, such as power
distribution, elections, and finance.

While most aspects of computer security involve digital measures such as electronic passwords and
encryption, physical security measures such as metal locks are still used to prevent unauthorized
tampering.

COMPUTER CRIME

Alternatively known as cyber crime, e-crime, electronic crime, or hi-tech crime. Computer crime is an act
performed by a knowledgeable computer user, sometimes called a "hacker," who illegally browses or
steals a company's or individual's private information. Sometimes, this person or group of individuals
may be malicious and destroy or otherwise corrupt the computer or data files.
Why do people commit computer crimes?

In most cases, someone commits a computer crime to obtain goods or money. Greed and desperation
are powerful motivators for some people to try stealing through computer crimes. Some people may
also commit a computer crime because they are pressured or forced to do so by another person.

Some people also commit computer crimes to prove they can do it. A person who can successfully
execute a computer crime may be greatly satisfied. These types of people, sometimes called black hat
hackers, like to create chaos and wreak havoc on other people and companies.

Another reason computer crimes are sometimes committed is because they're bored. They want
something to do and don't care if they commit a crime.

Examples of computer crimes

Below are different types of computer crimes today. Clicking any of the links gives further information
about each crime.

Child pornography - Making, distributing, storing, or viewing child pornography.

Click fraud - Fraudulent clicks on Internet advertisements.

Copyright violation - Stealing or using another person's Copyrighted material without permission.

Cracking - Breaking or deciphering codes designed to protect data.

Cyber terrorism - Hacking, threats, and blackmailing towards a business or person.

Cyberbully or cyberstalking - Harassing or stalking others online.

Cybersquatting - Setting up a domain of another person or company with the sole intention of selling it
to them later at a premium price.

Creating malware - Writing, creating, or distributing malware (e.g., viruses and spyware.)

Data diddling - Computer fraud involves intentionally falsifying numbers in data entry.
Denial of Service attack - Overloading a system with so many requests it cannot serve normal requests.

Data theft - Stealing others' personal or confidential information.

Doxing - Releasing another person's personal information without their permission.

Espionage - Spying on a person or business.

Fake - Products or services that are not real or counterfeit. For example, fake antivirus and fake
technical support are examples of something fake.

Fraud - Manipulating data, e.g., changing banking records to transfer money to an account or
participating in credit card fraud.

Green graffiti - Graffiti done through projectors or lasers to project an image or message onto a building.

Harvesting - Collect account or account-related information on other people.

Human trafficking - Participating in the illegal act of buying or selling other humans.

Identity theft - Pretending to be someone you are not.

Illegal sales - Buying or selling illicit goods online, including drugs, guns, and psychotropic substances.

Intellectual property theft - Stealing practical or conceptual information developed by another person or
company.

IPR violation - An intellectual property rights violation is any infringement of another's Copyright, patent,
or trademark.

Phishing or vishing - Deceiving individuals to gain private or personal information about that person.

Pig butchering - SMS (short message service) scam to get people to invest in a cryptocurrency scam.

Ransomware - Infecting a computer or network with ransomware that holds data hostage until a ransom
is paid.

Salami slicing - Stealing tiny amounts of money from each transaction.

Scam - Tricking people into believing something that is not true.

Sextortion - Extortion where a victim's private data of a sexual nature is acquired illegally by another
person.

Slander - Posting libel or slander against another person or company.

Software piracy - Copying, distributing, or using software not purchased by the software user.

Spamming - Distributed unsolicited e-mails to dozens or hundreds of different addresses.

Spoofing - Deceiving a system into thinking you are someone you're not.

Swatting - The act of calling in a false police report to someone else's home.

Theft - Stealing or taking anything (e.g., hardware, software, or information) that doesn't belong to you.

Typosquatting - Setting up a domain that is a misspelling of another domain.

Unauthorized access - Gaining access to systems you have no permission to access.

Vandalism - Damaging any hardware, software, website, or other objects.

Wiretapping - Connecting a device to a phone line to listen to conversations.

COMPUTER FRAUD

Computer fraud is the use of computers, the Internet, Internet devices, and Internet services to defraud
people or organizations of resources. In the United States, computer fraud is specifically proscribed by
the Computer Fraud and Abuse Act (CFAA), which criminalizes computer-related acts under federal
jurisdiction and directly combats the insufficiencies of existing laws.

Types of computer fraud include:

Distributing hoax emails

Accessing unauthorized computers

Engaging in data mining via spyware and malware

Hacking into computer systems to illegally access personal information, such as credit cards or Social
Security numbers
Sending computer viruses or worms with the intent to destroy or ruin another party's computer or
system.

Phishing, social engineering, viruses, and DDoS attacks are fairly well-known tactics used to disrupt
service or gain access to another's network, but this list is not inclusive.

OVER-DEPENDENT AND VIOLATION OF PRIVACY OF COMPUTER SYSTEM

OVER-DEPENDENT

There are those who believe that a rapidly advancing computer technology exhibits little regard for the
future re of the human race. They intend Hint computer overused, mis-used and are and are generally
detrimental to the society. This argues that the computer is dehumanizing and is slowly forcing into a
pattern of mass conformity. Computers and information system have enhanced our life style to the
point that most of us take them for granted.

Regardless of its drawbacks, society has reached the point of no return in its dependence on computer.
For example, today's automobile assembly line is as computer-dependent as its people-dependent. Turn
off the computer system for a day in almost any company and observe the consequences. Most
company would cease to exist. It has being estimated that many of the multinationals as we know them
today would be out of business within a very short time, if their computer systems went down.
Recognizing their dependence on computers, most companies have made contingency plans that
provide for back up computer in case of disaster. How ironic that we still depend on computerized back
or contingencies.

VIOLATION OF PRIVACY: The issue of greatest concern to the general public is the privacy of personal
information. Some people fear that computer based record keeping offers too much of an opportunity
for the invasion of an intuividual's privacy. For example, credit card users in the USA unknowingly leave
a 'trial of activities and interest that, when examined and evaluated, can provide a rather
comprehensive personal profile, since the date and location of all credit card transaction are recorded.
Also, some information is considered private and confidential and access to it by unauthorized persons is
undesirable. Generally, there exit facilities and features (the use of passwords, Encryptions etc) to
restrict access to any information stored in the computer only to an authorized person. At NÍTEL,
records are kept that detail the duration, time and numbers of all your telephone calls. With computers,
these numbers are easy to match to people. So each time you make a phone call you also leave a record
of whom you called. Your conservations may be recorded and used against you by individuals and of
course, the government.

THE CONCEPT OF COMPUTER NETWORKING AND INTERNET Each time anyone makes international call,
the world's largest computer network the telephone system is activated into action. A telephone is an
end point, or a node, connected to a network of computers that route voice signals to any one of the
one billion telephones (others node) in the world. Every telephone hand set is therefore connected to
another in vast worldwide network for human voice communications. Like the telephone hand set (for
human voice)), the PC's (for computer data) ae now being connected to one another.

What is computer networking?

Computer networking refers to interconnected computing devices that can exchange data and share
resources with each other. These networked devices use a system of rules, called communications
protocols, to transmit information over physical or wireless technologies.

How does a computer network work?

Nodes and links are the basic building blocks in computer networking. A network node may be data
communication equipment (DCE) such as a modem, hub or, switch, or data terminal equipment (DTE)
such as two or more computers and printers. A link refers to the transmission media connecting two
nodes. Links may be physical, like cable wires or optical fibers, or free space used by wireless networks.

In a working computer network, nodes follow a set of rules or protocols that define how to send and
receive electronic data via the links. The computer network architecture defines the design of these
physical and logical components. It provides the specifications for the network’s physical components,
functional organization, protocols, and procedures.

What do computer networks do?

Computer networks were first created in the late 1950s for use in the military and defense. They were
initially used to transmit data over telephone lines and had limited commercial and scientific
applications. With the advent of internet technologies, a computer network has become indispensable
for enterprises.

Modern-day network solutions deliver more than connectivity. They are critical for the digital
transformation and success of businesses today. Underlying network capabilities have become more
programmable, automated, and secure.

Modern computer networks can:

Operate virtually

The underlying physical network infrastructure can be logically partitioned to create multiple "overlay"
networks. In an overlay computer network, the nodes are virtually linked, and data can be transmitted
between them through multiple physical paths. For example, many enterprise networks are overlaid on
the internet.

Integrate on a large scale

Modern networking services connect physically distributed computer networks. These services can
optimize network functions through automation and monitoring to create one large-scale, high-
performance network. Network services can be scaled up or down based on demand.

Respond quickly to changing conditions

Many computer networks are software-defined. Traffic can be routed and controlled centrally using a
digital interface. These computer networks support virtual traffic management.

Provide data security

All networking solutions come with in-built security features like encryption and access control. Third-
party solutions like antivirus software, firewalls, and antimalware can be integrated to make the
network more secure.

Types of computer network architecture

Computer network design falls under two broad categories:

1. Client-server architecture

In this type of computer network, nodes may be servers or clients. Server nodes provide resources like
memory, processing power, or data to client nodes. Server nodes may also manage client node
behavior. Clients may communicate with each other, but they do not share resources. For example,
some computer devices in enterprise networks store data and configuration settings. These devices are
the servers in the network. Clients may access this data by making a request to the server machine.

2. Peer-to-peer architecture

In Peer-to-Peer (P2P) architecture, connected computers have equal powers and privileges. There is no
central server for coordination. Each device in the computer network can act as either client or server.
Each peer may share some of its resources, like memory and processing power, with the entire
computer network. For example, some companies use P2P architecture to host memory-consuming
applications, such as 3-D graphic rendering, across multiple digital devices.

NETWORK TOPOLOGY

The arrangement of nodes and links is called network topology. They can be configured in different ways
to get different outcomes. Some types of network topologies are:

Bus topology

Each node is linked to one other node only. Data transmission over the network connections occurs in
one direction.

Ring topology

Each node is linked to two other nodes, forming a ring. Data can flow bi-directionally. However,single
node failure can bring down the entire network.

Star topology

A central server node is linked to multiple client network devices. This topology performs better as data
doesn’t have to go through each node. It is also more reliable.

Mesh topology
Every node is connected to many other nodes. In a full mesh topology, every node is connected to every
other node in the network.

NETWORK TYPES

Depending on the organization's size and requirements, there are three common types of enterprise
private networks:

Local area network (LAN)

A LAN is an interconnected system limited in size and geography. It typically connects computers and
devices within a single office or building. It is used by small companies or as a test network for small-
scale prototyping.

Wide area networks (WAN)

An enterprise network spanning buildings, cities, and even countries, is called a wide area network
(WAN). While local area networks are used to transmit data at higher speeds within close proximity,
WANs are set up for long-distance communication that is secure and dependable.

SD-WAN or software-defined WAN is virtual WAN architecture controlled by software technologies. An

SD-WAN offers more flexible and dependable connectivity services that can be controlled at the
application level without sacrificing security and quality of service.

Service provider networks

Service provider networks allow customers to lease network capacity and functionality from the
provider. Network service providers may consist of telecommunications companies, data carriers,
wireless communications providers, Internet service providers, and cable television operators offering
high-speed Internet access.

Cloud networks

Conceptually, a cloud network can be seen as a WAN with its infrastructure delivered by a cloud-based
service. Some or all of an organization’s network capabilities and resources are hosted in a public or
private cloud platform and made available on demand. These network resources can include virtual
routers, firewalls, bandwidth, and network management software,with other tools and functions
available as required.

Businesses today use cloud networks to accelerate time-to-market, increase scale, and manage costs
effectively. The cloud network model has become the standard approach for building and delivering
applications for modern enterprises.

INTERNET TELEPHONY

Internet Telephony refers to all types of telephony services (including phone calls, fax, voicemail, video
calls and other forms of communication) where calls and data are sent digitally over the Internet using
the Internet Protocol (IP), rather than being transmitted over traditional analogue landlines. An example
of an Internet Telephony service is Cloudya, the Cloud Telephone System from NFON.

Difference between Internet Telephony and Voice over IP

Internet Telephony and Voice over IP (VoIP) are often used synonymously, but in reality, VoIP is a subset
of Internet Telephony that refers to voice traffic only. While Internet Telephony is a general term for the
IP packet-switching technology used by Internet phone systems to exchange any type of information,
Voice over IP is the specific method for carrying voice calls over an IP network. Internet Telephony
includes VoIP capability as well as a host of other features and functionality. For example, with Internet
Telephony from NFON, it is possible to integrate Unified Communications (UC) and fax solutions over
XCAPI.

How does an Internet Phone System Work?

In order to use an Internet phone system, it is necessary to have a VoIP solution such as the NFON Cloud
Telephone System.

As you speak through a microphone (laptop, mobile or headset) your voice - the audio signal - is
digitised. This data is split into packets and given individual labels.
Your call is made up of different packets of data. Each packet of data travels over the Internet to the
recipient. When the data arrives at the end destination it is put back into the correct order. The data is
then converted into audio and the recipient hears what you said.

Interestingly, the data packets don’t necessarily arrive in the order they were sent: they can overtake
each other en route. When then arrive they are reassembled in the correct order and your message can
be heard by the recipient.

Advantages of Internet Phone Systems for businesses

Internet Telephony offers many advantages compared to traditional telephony as it makes business
communication smarter, more flexible, more comfortable and more cost effective. One of its main
benefits is that is allows multiple device integration including smartphones and desk phones. Users can,
for instance, access their office extension from their smartphone, giving them complete freedom of
communication, no matter whether they are working remotely or in the office.

Full scalability and flexibility: The best Internet Telephony solutions are hosted in the cloud, so there’s
no need for the customer to buy, install and maintain expensive on-premise platforms. Implementation
is quick and telephony services, the number of users and any extra features can be scaled up and down
as required.

Lower costs: Typically, IP Telephony is more cost-efficient than traditional landline and mobile
telephony. With a cloud telephony solution, internal calls within an organisation are completely free of
charge.

Seamless accessibility and portability: Users can access their Internet Telephony services from anywhere
and from any device as long as they have an Internet connection. A dedicated app – such as the Cloudya
app from NFON – brings all the functionality of the cloud telephone system onto users’ smartphones,
from voicemail and contact lists to call forwarding and conference calls. This makes the switch to mobile
working easy.

Advanced features: With Internet Telephony, voice and data are transported over the same network,
making new services possible – such as ‘meet and share’ video calls. Integrations add extra functionality,
allowing organisations to streamline all their communication and business processes. For example,
Cloudya from NFON integrates with Unified Communications tools such as Microsoft Teams for effective
team collaboration.

Excellent voice quality: IP Telephony has come a long way since it was first introduced in the 1990s. As
long as the user has a fast and stable Internet connection with good bandwidth, VoIP calls should
experience no latency issues or interruptions. In addition, the latest IP phones and headsets are
designed to achieve superior sound quality with noise-cancelling and advanced audio compression,
cutting out any background noise.

CONNECTING TO THE INTERNET

Connect to Wi-Fi by going to your network settings, turning on Wi-Fi, and selecting your network name.

Connect to ethernet by using an ethernet cable to connect your computer to your router or modem.

Connect to dial-up by plugging in your modem to the phone jack, then connecting the modem to your
computer.

Before Connecting

Step 1 Ensure that the source of the internet is on.

Ensure that the source of the internet is on.

It may seem obvious, but a common mistake that's often made when connecting to the internet is not
making sure the source of the internet is on. Especially if you've just set up a router and/or modem,
ensure that it's on and that everything is plugged in properly, and that any lights on it aren't indicating
that there are problems.

Cords can also be unplugged or slightly pulled out of the wall, rendering the operation futile. Make sure
that everything is plugged in properly and is working right before getting started.

If you’ve just moved somewhere new, the internet might not be active. To set up your internet, call your
internet service provider (ISP) to turn on the internet connection for your residence.

Step 2 Understand that most mobile devices can only connect to wireless broadband.
Understand that most mobile devices can only connect to wireless broadband.

Devices like smartphones, tablets, iPods, handheld gaming systems, and so forth can usually only
connect to Wi-Fi services, due to the portable nature of them. Therefore, you won't be able to connect a
mobile device to ethernet or to a dial-up network. Ethernet and dial-up connections are limited to non-
portable gaming devices (not covered in this article) and computers.

Step 3 Know what "path" to take to get to your network settings.

Know what "path" to take to get to your network settings.

Regardless of what operating system or device you're using, you'll probably need to access your network
settings at some point in the process. The process is slightly different for every device, but the general
path that you'll need to take to access your network settings is usually the same, depending on the OS.
Some common devices or operating systems, and their paths to the settings, are listed below.

Windows XP: Start –> Control Panel –> Network and Internet Connections

Windows Vista: Start –> Network –> Network and Sharing Center

Windows 7: Start –> Control Panel –> Network and Internet

Windows 8: Start –> Search "View network connections" –> View Network Connections

Windows 10/11: Search "View network connections" –> View Network Connections

Mac OS X Jaguar and later: System Preferences –> Network

Ubuntu and Fedora: Network Manager

iOS (iPhone, iPad, etc.): Settings –> Wi-Fi

Android: Settings –> Wi-Fi (or Wireless & Networks)

Windows phone: Settings –> Wi-Fi.

Connect with Wireless Broadband

Step 1 Find your device’s network settings.

Find your device’s network settings.

Connecting to a wireless internet connection is easily done through your device’s settings menu. The Wi-
Fi options can be found in the settings menu of mobile devices and the taskbar on computers. This is
where you’ll turn on the Wi-Fi and connect to a network. Here are a few common network settings
locations:

Windows — Click the Wi-Fi icon in the taskbar to switch on Wi-Fi.

macOS — Click the Wi-Fi icon in the menu bar to switch on Wi-Fi.

Android — Go to Settings > Network & internet > Internet to turn on Wi-Fi.

iOS — Go to Settings > Wi-Fi to turn on Wi-Fi.

Step 2 Make sure that the Wi-Fi connection for your device is on.

Make sure that the Wi-Fi connection for your device is on.

Regardless of the device, it's possible to turn off Wi-Fi. Some devices have a physical switch that turns on
or turns off the Wi-Fi, while others just have the ability to toggle Wi-Fi on the software settings. Make
sure that the computer does not have the Wi-Fi capability turned off before proceeding.

For example, some laptop models have a physical Wi-Fi button in the function row at the top of the
keyboard. This key usually has an icon with three curved lines radiating from a dot.

Step 3 Go to the list of nearby Wi-Fi networks.

Go to the list of nearby Wi-Fi networks.

The Wi-Fi menu on your device will have a list of nearby networks that you can connect to.

On mobile, navigate to your device's settings menu, then navigate to the network settings. This is called
Wi-Fi on iPhone and Network & internet on Androids.

On Windows, click the Wi-Fi icon in the taskbar. When not connected to the internet, it will be a globe
icon.

On Mac, click the Wi-Fi icon in the menu bar. It looks like gray curved lines radiating from a point. There
will be a slash through the icon if your Mac’s Wi-Fi is turned off.
Step 4 Find the name of your Wi-Fi network.

Find the name of your Wi-Fi network.

Your broadband network's router should have the default name printed on it. The name of a hotspot
network will usually show up by default as the name of your cellular device (e.g. "[Your name]'s
iPhone"). Find this name and select it.

Wi-Fi or hotspot names can be changed, but if you've changed the name of your network or hotspot,
you probably know what it is. If you weren't the one to change it, or you don't know what the name is,
ask the person in charge of the network.

Router Wi-Fi network names are typically on a sticker on the bottom or back of the router.

Step 5 Enter the password to the network or hotspot.

Enter the password to the network or hotspot.

Some networks are public, but most aren't. If the network you're trying to connect to has a password,
you'll be prompted for that password before you can connect to the network. The default password will
usually be listed on the router, but if you don't know the password, ask the person in charge of the
network.

Some protected public networks may have varying passwords per person. For example, a school may
allow students to log on to the network with their student ID number, rather than a single set password.

See our guide to adding a password to your Wi-Fi if you want to change the default password.

Step 6 Wait for the computer to connect.

Wait for the computer to connect.

It often takes a few seconds for a device to connect to a wireless source, but if the computer can't
establish the connection to the router, it will time out the connection attempt. In this case, move closer
to the source, or disconnect and then reconnect your computer to the Wi-Fi.

The connection attempt will also fail if the password has been entered incorrectly.

Step 7 Test out your internet connection.

Test out your internet connection.

Once you've connected to the internet, open up a page in your web browser and wait for it to load.
Since some pages can crash, you may want to load up a reliable website, such as
https://www.google.com/, to ensure that the website isn't going to be down.

If your Internet is slow on one device, try joining the network on a different device to determine if
there's an issue with your router.

Step 8 Troubleshoot if your computer won't connect to the internet.

Troubleshoot if your computer won't connect to the internet.

Fixing your internet connection will require some investigation. There are many reasons that a computer
may not be able to connect to the wireless connection — most computers have built-in software that
can diagnose the problem. A few common problems are listed below:

Some older computers are unable to connect to the internet wirelessly. You may need an ethernet cable
to get online.

If the internet is slow or won't connect, you may be out of range of the router or hotspot. Try moving
closer to the source to speed up the internet connection.

If the network isn't showing up, you may be out of range, or the network may be down. Try moving
closer or restarting your home network. You can also try putting your router up on a higher shelf to
improve the signal.

CURRENT AND FUTURE TRENDS OF DATA COMMUNICATION

As the networking of computers develop, the need to personally owns computers will reduce. In the
future, a company will install a large mainframe or supercomputer to which individual with only a
dummy terminal, without CPU can connect Instead of having a personal computer whose 16MB RAM or
500 MB hard disk is fully used, it would be possible to just rent computer time and space only when it is
required rather than individual ownership, central computer system would be shared, and used with
much less wastage due to redundancy. This is what distributed computing is all about. With distributed
computing, the physical location of the computer will gradually not matter again. Telecommunications
linked with computers will apart from helping enthusiasts and professionals share one large computer,
also change the nature and pattern of the way we relate to one another in the world. One effect of large
scale networking of computers is the new trend of companies and institutions using computers to show
'presence' in many locations at the same time without any office space. Rather than having branch office
scattered everywhere, all that is now required is a PC. With modem and a telephone line, a cellular
mobile phone is enough. With that, staff or clients can be in touch with the main office (may be the only
physical situated office of the company) from any location in the world a sort of telepresence. Very big
companies in the world are gradually being able table to make patrons think they are everywhere. The
CNN's reporters, moving from country to country use this method to broadcast stories live from
anywhere in the world May be CNN less than 10 offices in the world, yet it is everywhere The impact of
telepresence will soon be felt, to the extent of changing the way we interact with one another. Before
long we could have telelegal, teleducation and telemarketing, to mention a few. Lets look at
telemedicine. Telemedicine is the use of telecommunication systems in order to help sick patients be in
contact with specialist doctors, without face-to-face contact. Imagine an accident victim with wounds on
the head, which has just been rushed to Wuse Hospital. Abuja. With telemedicine links X-rays and CT
Scans of the patient can be sent to specialists at Igbobi Orthopedic Hospital in Lagos. Imagine from
microscopes, recordings of heartbeat and pulses from digital.

Stethoscopes and the electronic tracing of electrocardiograms can be complied into digital packets and
sent along wires to the expert. And within seconds, the correct diagnosis and the right emergency
procedures would be transmitted back. With cameras in the theatre at Abuja, Igbobi experts can even
monitor the progress of the surgical operation on their computer monitor screens, and make further
advice to the doctors performing the operation. To the patient, it would be as if Igbobi Hospital was
temporarily moved to Abuja. Can we think of how lives would be saved, when telemedicine technology
arrives in Nigeria? Such technology as described above is already used by many medical Information
Network, or the Medical College of Georgia network, provide access to specialists in radiology,
endoscopy, and a range of other subjects over telecommunications lines from remote and fart away
clinics all over the United States. Telemedicine is also being piloted in countries where resources are
more scare. For example, Satellites is an international non- profit organization, which uses satellites to
provide health communication, and information services in developing countries It is an initiative of the
International Physician for the Prevention of Nuclear War, which passes data from one ground station to
another via satellites.
NETWORK SERVICES

We now have many computers network services that are based on data communications through the
information superhighway. Among these services are:

1 Electronic Mail (E-mail)

2 Electronic Commerce Internet

ELECTRONIC MAIL (E-MAIL)

Readers are used to editing letters, addressing the envelop and thereafter using the services of Nigeria
Postal Service (NIPOST) to (li.-t them to another town within the country or across the continent to
anywhere in the world. There are mail-sorting centers everywhere and sorted mail is either moved by
road, sea or air. This manual system involving physical movement of information. The Electronic Mail (E-
mail) system is the electronic equivalent of the NIPOST's conventional mailing services. Unlike the
telephone call, on e of the merits of mailing information to someone is that the two people involved,
sender and recipient, don't have to be available at the same line The E-mail, like the post, is a store and
forward technology

E-mail messages, like letters, arc delivered to the computer exchange (equivalent to the local post office)
where they are stored and distributed. Messages that are destined for a local recipient (say in the same
town) will be sent directly, whereas letters to a remote person (say in another country) may have to pass
through several other 'post offices' and 'sorting offices" before being delivered. If the local post office is
capable of delivering messages, then the recipient will see them in their mailbox. One of the bottleneck
of e-mail is virus, e-mail virus moves around in e-mail messages and usually replicate itself by
automatically mailing itself to dozens of people in the victims email address book. If not, the messages
will remain at the past office until they are collected or declared as unclaimed The biggest differences
between an E-mail system and the postal service is the time and cost involved. To send a letter to the
other side of the world can take a week or more and it will cost far more than sending a letter to the
next town. E-mail messages, on the other hand, take a matter of seconds (at most, hours) to reach their
destination and the cost is always the same. As an added merit environmentally friendly bonus, there is
no need print out the message and stick il in an envelope; it's all done from the keyboard- Not only
written data, but all sorts of information in form of video, audio and or photographs. In summary
electronic mail popularly known as E-mail is a digital letter sent from one recipient to another. The
sender and the recipient must have e-mail address in order for the chain to be complete 1-mail travels
very fast, hence it is efficient. There are many web portals, on the Internet that offers free e-mail
services. These web portals give you e-mail address for free, with some megabyte of space with which
you can send, save, receive and forward e-mail messages

E-MAILSERVICE PROVIDER INCLUDES:

1. www.yahoo.com

2. www.gmail.com

3. www.hotmail.com

4. www.another.com

5. www.excite.com

6. www.jungle.com

7. www.onebox.com

ELECTRONIC COMMERCE (E-COMMERCE)

This is buying and selling over the Internet facilitated by immediate payment using credit card. The
Internet was not meant to be this commercial, it was meant for research and information sharing. But
the introduction of the World Wide Web has turned the Internet It source of commerce disseminated.
Someone has to paste particular information on the notice board and students or officers have to check
regularly for anything that may be of interest. Like the notice board, some BBS's are non-commercial.
For some others, users have to pay fees before being granted access. Whether free or not, the user
must have a PC that is connected to a modem. A unique password and a dial number have to be
assigned to gain access. The BBS as currently implemented in Europe and America enable users to read
and take part in 'conference' that range from technical discussion of the latest technology, to work of art
or nay subject of interest for the matter. The BBS has the added merit of having e-mail as part of the
services offered to subscribers.
INTERNET:

The Internet is defined as an international computer network through which computer users all over the
world can communicates and exchange information across the globe. The Internet is also defined as a
network of computer network, a very wide collection of interconnected information resources. Very
many local area networks of participating institutions are linked together through tin; data
communication channels provided by common carrier, to which individuals can subscribe. The Internet
includes the World Wide Web, which enables you to see documents in the richly formatted text and
pictures. Many web pages, so it's easy to browse or "surf a large amount of information. Furthermore,
for developing countries like Nigeria, where nothing seems to work, where the educational system has
collapsed and there are no adequate textbooks to sustain the various disciplines, there are opportunities
on the Net to access textbooks. read and or download and even know the current researches in an area
of interest. All these would cost enormous amount of hard currency subscribing to the learned journals
and magazines. Once on the Internet, one can find practically any piece of information needed with
diligent searching of all the online computers connected through the Internet.

THE WORLD WIDE WEB (WWW): There is this other important invention, which for many people is
Internet-This is, the World Wide Web. This is the invention that really caught the attention of the world.
This technology owes its existence to man called Tim Berners-Lee who while working as a consultant
software engineer at a physics laboratory, designed a programmed for storing information. He called
this programmed ENQUIRE. This was basically viewing center of some sorts before other Internet
pundits improved on. However his initial specifications the basis upon which HTML (Hyper Text Mark-up
Language) and tite World Wide Web technology based.

PRACTICAL APPLICATION AREAS OF INTERNET

1. Communication

Communication refers to exchanging ideas and thoughts between or among people to create
understanding. The communication process involves the elements of source, encoding, channel,
receiver, decoding, and feedback. In organizations, both formal and informal communications
simultaneously take place. Formal communications refer to official communications in orders, notes,
circulars, agenda, minutes, etc. Apart from formal communications, informal grapevine communications
also exist. Informal communications are usually in the form of rumors, whispers, etc. They are unofficial,
unrecorded, and spread very fast.

2. Web Browsing

Web Browsing is one of the applications of the internet. A web browser is a program that helps the user
to interact with all the data in the WWW (World Wide Web). There are many web browsers present in
today's world. Some of them are as follows:

Google Chrome

Firefox

Safari

Internet Explorer

Opera

Microsoft Edge

Netscape

3. Online Shopping

The era of the internet took shopping into a new market concept, where many virtual shops are
available 24x7. The shops provide all the necessary details of a product on their website, so the user can
choose as per their needs.

4. Real-Time Update

The internet makes things easier. One can quickly get an update on the things happening in real-time in
any part of the world. For example, sports, politics, business, finance, etc. The internet is very useful in
many decisions based on real-time updates.

5. Social Media

The youth of this generation spend the maximum of their free time on social media, all thanks to the
internet. Social media is a place where the user can communicate with anyone, like friends, family,
classmates, etc. User can promote their businesses on social media as well. You can also post your
thoughts, pictures and videos with your friends on social media.

6. Job Search

The internet has brought a revolution in the field of Jobs. The candidate can search for their dream job,
apply and get it very easily. Even companies nowadays post their need on the internet and hire
candidates as per their skills based on the job role.

There are many platforms which are primarily doing this. Some of them are listed below.

LinkedIn

Monster.com

Naukari.com

Indeed

Glassdoor

Upwork

7. Education

The Internet has a vital role in the education field. It became an effective tool in both teaching and
learning. Teachers can upload their notes or learning videos on the websites with the help of the
internet. It made the learning process more diverse and joyful.

8. Travel

Users can easily search for their favourite tourist places worldwide and plan their trips. One can book
holiday trips, cabs, hotels, flight tickets, clubs, etc., with the help of the Internet. Some websites that
provide these facilities are as follows:

 goibibo.com
 makemytrip.com
 olacabs.com

9. Stock Market Update

A stock market update refers to the latest information and news related to the financial markets,
particularly the stock market. The stock market is where individuals buy and sell publicly traded
company shares. Stock market updates include vital data and statistics, like the current prices of major
stocks, individual stock prices, trading volumes, market capitalization, and price movements.

10. Video Conferencing

Video conferencing means using computers to provide a video link between two or more people. It
allows users in different locations to hold face-to-face meetings. You can also see them instead of just
talking to someone on the telephone. Video conferencing is a widely accepted mode of communication
among businesses, houses, and other organizations.

CAREER OPPORTUNITIES ASSOCIATED WITH COMPUTER

The preceding section highlights the job fosses associated with computing Needless to say that there are
new opportunities, instead of cashiers, we have cash or teller officers. to mention a very rudimentary
example in general, there are career opportunities both for the literates and those with various forms of
training in computing

HUMANWARE WITH COMPUTER LITERACY SKILLS

What Does Humanware Mean?

Humanware is defined in IT as hardware or software that is built around user capabilities and user
needs. This often involves creating a particular visual or physical interface for a given set of users. The
design and engineering of humanware starts with the user’s interests and needs first, and designs the
infrastructure accordingly.

Techopedia Explains Humanware

The philosophy behind humanware is that instead of starting with an implementation goal, the software
or IT architecture design process starts with an understanding of what users will need. For example, in a
traditional desktop system, humanware might involve changing the visual interface to make it more
accessible to those with low computer literacy. Another excellent and very common example is the
designing of hardware systems for persons with disabilities. Here, the design work starts with the basics
of what disabled individuals need from a system – whether it be elevated height of operation, features
for the visually impaired, alternatives to conventional mouse and keyboard input, or other changes.

Persons seeking employment (or perhaps a promotion) these days are often asked "Are you computer
literate?" the Response of the applicant in many cases determines the outcome of the job interviews.
Computer literacy is already prerequisite to employments in some professions, such as business and
engineering. With a few years, may well be a prerequisite for success in most professions. Career
mobility is becoming forever intertwined with an individual's current and future knowledge of
computers. A secretary without computer literacy will soon be out of job in this country. Bank clerks,
bank supervisors, accountants and telephone operator's etc. without computer literacy will much
sooner discover that the world has left them behind.

HUMANWARE WITH SPECIALIST TRAINING

The day-to-day operations of the computer system rely upon a number of specialist staff including the
following:

1. Data preparation staff

2. Data control staff

3. Computer supervisor

4. Information Technology Manager

5. System analyst

6. Tape/disk librarian

7. Database administrator

8. Programmer

9. Data communication specialist

The following job descriptions for the possible are illustrative of the academic or proficiency
requirements of employers in the industry.
The IT Manager (sometimes called the computer manager) is a key figure in the organization. His or her
job is to ensure that the computer department functions efficiently in the service of the company. He or
she is responsible for ensuring that the computer needs of the organization are met within the policy
guidelines laid down. The IT manager must be a good administrator as well as having sound business
knowledge. He or she must also have the knowledge and expertise necessary to enable him or her to
control his or her teams of specialists in the various computing fields. It is important that his or her
status be clearly defined especially with regard to his right of access to the board. The manager of the
systems' analysis, programming, operation and the other groups would normally report to this level of
management. Ideally one would like someone who has previous experience of installing successful
systems, and the appointment should be made very early on in the planning cycle to enable the
company to get the benefit of his or her specialist knowledge and experience. If not recruited from
outside, the potential computer manager could be found in the management services division. System
Analysis may be defined as the method of determines how best to use computer, with other resources,
to perform tasks, which meet the information needs of an organization The function of a system analyst,
or Simply analyst, is the analysis, design and implementation of information systems that meet their
data processing and information needs. System analysts are also assigned a variety of tasks, including
feasibility studies, system reviews, security assessments, or management information system (MIS) long
range planning, etc. The application programmer, or simply programmer, translates analyst prepared
system and inputs/outputs specifications into programs Programmers design the logic, then code,
debug, tests and documents programs. The programs written by an application programmer are
designed for a certain application, such as market analysis or inventory management. Programmers are
essentially charged with turning user specifications into an information system. A person holding a
programmer or analyst position performs the functions of both programmer and a system analyst. In
some companies/institution you are either a programmer or an analyst.

System programmers develop and maintain system software, which; is fundamental to the general
operation of the computer, which However, in developing economy, the use of this machine will open
up more job opportunities. In order to eliminate unemployment nemu result in application of computers
the following actions can be takehat.

1. Some of the staff could be retained to change job from non- computer oriented jobs to computer-
oriented jobs. For example an account clerk in accounting department might change job to become a
data entry operator or a computer operator.
2. Output can be increased lo create more jobs. The efficiency resulting from computer application could
be accompanied with production cost reduction that may force down the prices of products that might
stimulate demand. In a developing economy, like Nigeria efficiency is yet to reach satisfactory level.
Applications of computers are limited and have not reach a stage that could improve efficiency because
of inadequate skilled manpower and non-availability of appropriate infrastructures. Application of
computers in this economy would enable more information activities to be performed resulting gin
creating more jobs for more people.

THE ROLE OF HUMANWARE RESOURCES

Humanware focuses on developing and providing assistive technology for the visually impaired and
learning disabled, enabling them to enhance their daily lives and work independently.

The company offers a wide range of products, including adaptive reading aids like electronic magnifiers,
refreshable Braille displays, and literacy software for those with dyslexia.

Humanware’s products are designed with user-friendliness, durability, and versatility in mind, ensuring
accessibility to information and connectivity for individuals with varying needs and abilities.

IMPORTANCE

Humanware is a crucial term in technology as it highlights the human element involved in the successful
operation, integration, and development of technology systems.

This term encompasses the human abilities, intelligence, experience, and skills needed to collaborate
and interact with the software and hardware components of a system.

In essence, humanware emphasizes that regardless of technological advancements, human interaction

and expertise remain indispensable to derive maximum benefits and efficiency within any technological
infrastructure.

Recognizing and nurturing humanware plays an essential role in exceeding user expectations and driving
innovation by fostering synergistic relationships between humans and technology.

Explanation

Humanware, as a technological term, emphasizes the importance of the human aspect in the
development and implementation of technology. Its purpose is to cultivate a user-centric approach
while designing and creating systems, software, or hardware. By considering the needs, preferences,
and capabilities of the end-users, developers can ensure that the technology effectively integrates with
everyday human lives and activities.

Consequently, humanware prioritizes ease of use, accessibility, and ergonomics to facilitate seamless
interactions between technology and users across various platforms and devices. It encapsulates various
concepts such as training, user experience, and teamwork, among others, to foster workable solutions
that cater to diverse users’ needs, enhancing their overall productivity and satisfaction. Humanware
encompasses a range of applications and can be applied to different sectors, including education,
healthcare, business, and entertainment industries.

In educational settings, effective humanware translates into the creation of adaptable and personalized
learning platforms that cater to various learning styles and abilities. In the medical field, it involves
designing user-friendly devices and software that enhance the patient experience and allow healthcare
providers to offer personalized care solutions. In the business world, humanware steers developers to
create efficient tools and systems that streamline operations and maintain a robust organization.

Ultimately, the essence of humanware lies in the acknowledgment of the critical role human factors play
in technology’s success and the continuous efforts towards optimizing these interactions for improved
user experiences.

Examples of Humanware

Humanware is a term used to describe a range of technologies designed to enhance human abilities and
improve the quality of life for individuals, particularly those with disabilities or impairments. Here are
three real-world examples of humanware technology:

BrailleNote Touch Plus: This is a cutting-edge technology designed for the visually impaired and blind
individuals. BrailleNote Touch Plus is an advanced tablet designed to support both braille input and
speech output. It allows users to read, write, browse the internet, and perform various tasks without
needing sighted assistance. It can also help students who are learning braille by providing instant audio
feedback as they write.

ReWalk Robotics Exoskeleton: Designed for individuals with spinal cord injuries, the ReWalk Robotics
Exoskeleton is a wearable robotic system that enables people with paralysis to stand, walk, and even
climb stairs. It works by using motorized leg attachments controlled by a wearable computer and
supported by crutches. This real-world humanware example demonstrates how technology can help
restore mobility to those who have lost it due to injury or illness.

Cochlear Implants: Cochlear implants are surgically implanted electronic devices that enable individuals
with severe hearing impairments or deafness to perceive sound. Unlike traditional hearing aids, cochlear
implants bypass the damaged parts of the ear and directly stimulate the auditory nerve. As a result,
users can experience a more comprehensive understanding of sounds and speech. This humanware
technology has significantly improved the quality of life for many individuals with hearing impairments.

COMPUTERS AND UNEMPLOYMENT

It is widely recognized that in the industrialized economies there has been a dramatic rise in the average
duration of unemployment during recent decades. Though it has been most severe during periods of
high unemployment rates, even at other times the length of time between jobs of an average
unemployed worker has increased substantially. Here I offer one such hypothesis, ascribing at least part
of the phenomenon to the information technology “revolution,” and provide empirical evidence for this
proposed explanation. I will argue here that when the rate of technical transformation is high, the
average duration of unemployment is likely to rise. Moreover, the duration of unemployment is likely to
increase relatively more for older workers than younger ones and for the poorly educated than those
with more schooling.

While there is a voluminous literature on causes of unemployment and the unemployment rate, there is
a much smaller literature on technological factors that influence unemployment duration. For example,
Richard Layard and Stephen Nickell, who have worked extensively on unemployment issues, argued in a
1991 paper that the persistence of unemployment depends on the benefit and wage determination
systems, and also on the degree of employment flexibility.

However, there are a couple of papers related to this subject. Aaronson and Housinger [1999] looked at
the effects of new technology on the reemployment of displaced workers. They found that increases in
new technology, as measured by R&D intensity and computer usage, decreased the likelihood of
displaced workers finding new employment after being laid off. Their results also indicated that both
older and less skilled workers had greater difficulty finding a new job after displacement. Using data on
individual workers from the Current Population Survey, concluded that impending retirement reduces
the incentive of older workers to acquire new skills, particularly with regard to computer usage. Then
using data from the Health and Retirement Survey, found that computer users retire later than
nonusers. On the basis of Instrumental Variables regression analysis, estimated that computer use
directly lowered the probability of retiring.75

PRECAUTION IN USING COMPUTER SYSTEM

Safety Precautions

A few warnings and reminders before you start disassembling your computer tower to keep both your
unit and yourself safe

1. Fully shut down and unplug the computer before you make any attempts to disassemble the tower.

2. Take off any metal objects on your arms or fingers such as bracelets, rings or watches. Even if your
unit is unplugged, there may still be some remaining electric charge.

3. Make sure your hands are completely dry to avoid damaging any mechanical parts as well as to avoid
electrocution.

4. Work in a cool area to avoid perspiration for the same reason as seen in the previous number.

5. Before touching any part within the tower, put your hands against another metal surface (such as the
computer casing) to remove static charge, which may damage sensitive devices.

6. Prepare a place to keep any screws you may remove. A container or piece of paper with labels for
each part (casing, motherboard, CD drive, etc) is ideal to avoid confusion between the similar-looking
screws.

7. Handle all parts with care. Place each piece you remove carefully down onto a stable surface.

8. If a component does not come out easily, do not forcefully remove it. Instead, check that you are
removing it correctly and that no wires or other parts are in the way.

9. Be careful when holding the motherboard, it’s underside actually quite pointy and able to hurt you.

10. Never attempt to remove the power source, a box attached to the side or bottom of the unit to
which all cables are connected.
11. When removing any cables, wires or ribbons, make sure to grasp the wire at the base or head to
keep it from breaking.

12. Be careful not to drop any small parts (particularly screws) into unreachable areas such as into the
computer fan or disk drive.

13. Take note that the three of the most damaging things to a computer are moisture (sweat, drinking
water), shock (electric or from being dropped) and dust (any debris from household dust to bits of food).

THE COMPUTER “REVOLUTION” AND THE DURATION OF JOBLESSNESS

Two relatively early papers have called the rapid introduction and diffusion of computers and associated
information technology (IT) a “technological revolution.” Christopher Freeman, writing in 1987, termed
this transformation as a new “technoeconomic paradigm,” based on microprocessor-driven IT. IT has
“emerged in the last couple of decades as a result of the convergence of a number of inter-related
radical advances in the field of microelectronics, fibre optics, software engineering, communications and
computer technology.” He defined it “both as a new range of products and services, and as a technology
which is capable of revolutionizing the processes of production and delivery of all other industries and
services.” Paul David, writing in 1991, refereed to “the paradigmatic shift” from electromechanical
automation to information technologies.

One result of this technological revolution is a transformation of the skills required in the labor market.
According to Freeman [1987, 66], the results of extensive research

conducted by the Science Policy Research Unit (SPRU) of the University of Sussex 76showed that IT
“reduces the requirements for inspection and lower management (and clerical) employees, but
increases the requirement for skilled systems designers and engineers and the level of responsibility for
skills for maintenance....”

In my own work, I also presented evidence on the “disruptive” effects of computerization on the labor
market and the consequent structural adjustments that have ensued.