Prepared by Dr.M.Selvakumar/ Prof.

/Civil/REC

Wastewater Engineering
UNIT I – Planning and design of sewerage systems (Notes of Lesson)
1.1 Basic definitions:
REFUSE: Refuse is a general term applied to all solid and semi-solid waste materials that
are either putrescible or non-putrescible like garbage, rubbish, trash, ashes, street cleanings,
dead animals, abandoned automobiles and industrial waste.
Garbage: Garbage is the organic fraction of solid waste that consists of animal & vegetable
wastes like kitchen waste, fruit peels, food waste, vegetable waste, flower waste, organic silt,
meat waste etc. resulting from the cooking, handling, storage and serving of food.
SEWAGE: It indicates all liquid waste originating from the domestic uses of water. It includes
sullage, discharge from toilets, urinals, wastewater generated from commercial establishments,
institutions, industrial establishments and also the groundwater and storm water that may enter into
the sewers. Its decomposition produces large quantity of malodorous gases, and it contains numerous
pathogenic or disease producing bacteria, along with high concentration of organic matter and
suspended solids.
SULLAGE: This refers to the wastewater generated from bathrooms, kitchens, washing place and
wash basins, etc. Composition of this waste does not involve higher concentration of organic matter
and it is less polluted water as compared to sewage.
Of the total amount of wastewater generated in a house, sewage is about 25% while the
sullage is the majority ie., almost 75%. Hence a large amount of wastewater in the form of sullage
goes down the drain without getting utilized. The sullage recycle systems are ideal for residential
colonies as well as hotels and large institutions.
SEWER: underground conduit or drain through which sewage is carried to the point of discharge or
disposal. It is generally closed and normally does not flow full.
SEWERAGE: The entire science of collecting and carrying sewage by water carriage system through
a network of sewers, appurtenances, devices, structures and equipment. This includes operations like
pumping of sewage, transportation and periodical flushing of sewers.
Wastewater: The term wastewater includes both organic and inorganic constituents, in soluble or
suspended form, and mineral content of liquid waste carried through liquid media. Generally the
organic portion of the wastewater undergoes biological decompositions and mineral matter may
combine with water to form dissolved solids.
Sewage is a subset of wastewater. Wastewater include sewage from a domestic community and/or due
to industrial or commercial activity.
Storm water flow: flow through sewer during rainy season.
DWF: liquid flow through the sewer that would be available throughout the year (both non-rainy and
rainy season)
WWF: It is the storm water flow that would additionally flow into the sewers during rainy season or
due to rainfall.

1.2 COMPOSITION OF SEWAGE: Sewage consists of about 99.9% water and 0.1 % solids,
the solids are either organic or inorganic. The organic solids consist of about 65% protein, 25%
carbohydrate and 10% fats.
Contain organic & Inorganic matter, some gases & living organisms (mainly micro-organisms)
Organic & Inorganic matter may be in suspended, colloidal & dissolved form.
Organic matter include:
 Carbohydrate like cellulose, starch, Sugar, cotton etc.
 Fats & Oil received from kitchen, garbage
 Nitrogenous compound like protein & their decomposed product, including waste from urea,
animal, fatty acid etc.
 Inorganic matter consists of salt & mineral like sand, gravel, dissolved salts, chlorides,
sulphates etc.

1.3 Different methods of domestic wastewater disposal (or) systems of sanitation

Conservancy System:

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Sometimes the system is also called as dry system. This is out of date system but is prevailing in small
towns and villages. Various types of refuse and storm water are collected conveyed and disposed of
separately.
Garbage is collected in dustbins placed along the roads from where it is conveyed by trucks ones or
twice a day to the point of disposal. All the non-combustible portion of garbage such as sand dust,
clay etc are used for filling the low level areas to reclaim land for the future development if the town.
The combustible portion of the garbage is burnt. The decaying matters are dried and disposed of by
burning or the manufacture of manure.
Human excreta are collected separately in conservancy latrines. The liquid and semi-liquid wastes are
collected and covered with night soil. After removal of night soil, it is transported on head or carts
outside the town and buried in trenches. After 2-3 years the buried night soil is converted into
excellent manure.
In conservancy system, sewage and storm water are carried separately in closed drains to the point of
disposal where they are allowed to mix with river water without treatment.
Water Carriage system:
With the development and advancement of the cities urgent need was felt to replace conservancy
system with some more improved type of system in which human agency should not be used for the
collection and conveyance of sewage. After large number of experiments it was found that the water
is the only cheapest substance which can be easily used for the collection and conveyance of sewage.
Hence the name water carriage system.
In this system the excremental matter is mixed up in large quantity of water and is taken out
from the city through properly designed sewerage systems, where they are disposed of after necessary
treatment in a satisfactory manner.
The sewages so formed in water carriage system consists of 99.9% of water and 0.1% solids.
All these solids remain in suspension and do not change the specific gravity of water. Therefore all
the hydraulic formulae can be directly used in the design of sewerage system and treatment plants.
The advantages offered by the water carriage system are:
 The carriage of wastes on head or carts is not required.
 Bad smell, which was unavoidable during open transport of sewage, is not occurring
due to transport of this polluted water in closed conduits.
 The old system was posing the health hazards to sweepers and to the nearby residents,
because of the possibilities of flies and insects transmitting disease germs from the
accessible carts to the residents food eatables. This is avoided in water carriage system
because of transport of night soil in close conduits.
 The human excreta is washed away as soon as it is produced in water carriage system,
thus storing is not required as required in the old system of manual disposal. Thus, no
bad smells are produced in closed conduit transport.
 In the old system, the wastewater generated from the kitchen and bathrooms was
required to be carried through open roadside drains for disposal. This is avoided in
sewerage system as the open drains could generate bad odours when used for disposal
of organic wastes.
 The water carriage system does not occupy floor area, as the sewers are laid
underground.
 In addition, the construction of toilets one above the other is possible in water carriage
system and combining latrine and bathrooms together as water closets is possible. This
is one of the important advantages of water carriage system.
However, this water carriage system also has certain drawbacks such as:
 A large network of pipes is required for collection of the sewage; hence, the capital cost
for water carriage system is very high.
 In addition, the operation and maintenance of sewerage system is very expensive.
 Large wastewater volume is required to be treated before disposal.
 Assured water supply is essential for efficient operation of the water carriage system.

S.No Conservancy system Water carriage system

1 System unhygienic since everything is visible, System hygienic since sewers laid

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undergoes putrefaction and foul smell underground and excreta, etc not visible.
emanated.
2 Initial cost is small, though the running costs High initial cost. Running cost is small.
are high.
3 Water consumption is small. Requires high water consumption.
4 Large land required for the disposal of Small land required for the disposal of
untreated sewage. Good quality manure treated sewage.
available from the end products.
5 Large labour force required. Labour force is negligibly small
6 Risk of spread of epidemic and acute pollution No such risk and pollution problems are
problems. rare.
7 The system is more suitable for rural The system is better suitable for urban
conditions and no technical persons required. conditions and technical persons required
for operation and maintenance.
8 Final disposal into streams, etc not free from Final disposal easier because of treatment
risks works
9 Compact house design not possible Compact design is possible.

1.4 COMPONENTS OF A SEWERAGE SYSTEM: Building sewers (or) building connections

are pipes generally 15 cm dia or more which connect from the building plumbing works to the lateral
sewer.

(i) House sewer: A house sewer is a pipeline where all wastewater inside a building will
ultimately discharge connecting a home's plumbing to the municipal sewer system.
Normal diameter is 15 cm – 20 cm
(ii) Lateral sewer – a sewer which collects sewage directly from houses and delivers it to a
branch sewer in the street. It thus indicates the first stage of collection. Normal diameter
size – 25 cm
(iii) Branch sewer (or) submain sewer – It is a sewer which receives sewage from a number of
lateral sewers and delivers it to the main sewer. It thus serves only a relatively small area.
Normal diameter size – 50 cm
(iv) Main sewer: It is a sewer which receives sewage from a number of branch (or) submain
sewers. It thus serves as an outlet for a large area. Normal diameter size - 100 cm (or) 1m
(v) Trunk sewers: Trunk sewer is a large sewer that is used to convey wastewater from a
number of main sewers to the treatment or other disposal facilities or is used to feed an
intercepting sewer. Normal diameter size – 1.2 m
(vi) Intercepting sewer: It is a large sewer which intercepts a number of trunk or main sewer
and conveys the wastewater to treatment or other disposal facilities. It is laid transverse to
the general sewer system. Normal diameter is 1.25m to 1.5m

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(vii) Outfall sewer: It is a sewer which receives sewage from a collection system and conducts
it either to a treatment plant (or) to the point of final discharge. It is generally the sewer
with the largest diameter. Normal diameter size – 1.5m to 3m
(viii) Inlets or catch basins (for storm water inlet into sewer)
(ix) Waste water treatment plant
The wastewater has to be treated to permissible standards depending on the area of disposal/usage
IS2490 – Discharge into inland surface water
IS3307 – Discharge into land for irrigation
IS3306 – Discharge into public sewers
IS7968 – Discharge into coastal marine areas

1.5 Design and Planning of a sewerage system:

1. It should remove entire sewage effectively up to the point of disposal.
2. Must be of adequate size to avoid overflow. Therefore sewerage discharge should be estimated
correctly.
3. It should be designed to be laid on a slope that will permit reasonable flow velocity.
4. Sewers should be laid 2 to 3m deep.
5. It should be designed to flow under gravity with ½ or 3/4th full.
6. Wastewater treatment plant should be located in a low lying area.
7. Constituents of the sewage should be thoroughly studied for effective treatment.
8. Permissible standards for effluents and possible uses of water downstream should also be studied.

1.6 The sewerage system may be classified as (i) separate system, (ii) combined system and (iii)
partially separate system
(i) Separate system: In this system 2 sets of sewers are laid. The sanitary sewage is carried through
sanitary sewers while the storm water is carried through storm sewers. The sewage is carried to the
treatment plant and the storm water is disposed of to the river. The diameter of sanitary sewer is small
since it only carries sewage.

Advantages:
1. Size of sewers is small.
2. Sewage load on treatment unit is less.
3. Rivers are not polluted.
4. Storm water can be discharged to rivers without treatment
5. Sewage is more uniform in character.
Disadvantages:
1. Sewerage being small, difficulty in cleaning them.
2. Frequent chocking problems will be there due to smaller dia sewer.
3. System proves costly as it involves 2 sets of sewers
4. The use of storm sewer is only partial because in dry season it will be converted to dumping places
and may get clogged.
(ii) Combined System: When only 1 set of sewer is used to carry both sanitary sewage and storm
water. This system is called combined system. Sewage and storm water both are carried to the

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treatment plant through combined sewers whose diameter is large. Excess storm water is carried to the
river as shown in diagram. In diagram, POTW – public owned treatment works.
Advantages:
1. It proves economical as one 1 set of sewers are laid.
2. Since sewers are of large size, the chances of chocking are rare and it is easy to clean.
3. Because of dilution of sanitary sewage with storm water nuisance potential is reduced.
4. There is more air in the larger sewers than in smaller ones and hence foul-smelling sewage gas
formed may get diluted.

Disadvantages:
1. Size of sewers being large, difficulty in handling and transportation.
2. Load on treatment plant is unnecessarily increased.
3. It is uneconomical if pumping is needed because of large amount of combined flow.
4. Unnecessarily storm water is polluted.
(iii) Partially combined system: A portion of storm water during rain is allowed to enter sanitary
sewer to treatment plants while the remaining storm water is carried through open drains to the point
of disposal. Only 1 set of underground sewers is laid wherein foul sewage as well as early washings
by rains are admitted. As soon as the quantity of storm water exceeds a certain limit, the storm water
overflows, and is thus diverted and conveyed to open drains placed on one side of street to natural
streams. During rains, the sewage and storm water mix in the sewers and is carried to the sewage
treatment plant, while the excess storm water carried by open drains is delivered to a natural stream or
river for disposal. During non-rainy period, the foul sewage continues to flow in the sewers.

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Advantages:
1. The size of sewers are not very large as some portion of storm water is carried through open drains.
2. Combines the advantages of both the previous systems.
3. During rainy season the storm water prevents chocking of sewers and are automatically cleaned.
Disadvantages:
1. During dry weather the velocity of flow may be low leading to silting.
2. The storm water unnecessarily put load on to the treatment plants to extend.
3. Pumping of storm water put unnecessary over-load on pumps.
1.6.1 CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE TYPE OF SYSTEM:
Following points are considered before finalizing the type of collection system.
 The separate system requires laying of two sets of conduits whereas in combined system
only one bigger size conduit is required.
 Laying of two separate conduits may be difficult in the congested streets.
 In combined system sewers are liable for silting during non-monsoon season, hence they
are required to be laid at steeper gradients. Steeper gradients for the sewers may require
more number of pumping stations, particularly for flat terrain, which may make the system
costly.
 Large quantity of wastewater is required to be treated before discharge in case of combined
system. Hence, large capacity treatment plant is required.
 In separate system, only sewage is treated before it is discharged into natural water body or
used for irrigation. No treatment is generally given to the rainwater collected before it is
discharge in to natural water body.
 In case of separate system pumping is only required for sewage. Pumping can be avoided
for storm water lines, as they are not very deep and normally laid along the natural slopes.
 In combined system large capacity pumping station is required to safely handle the flow
that is likely to be generated during highest design storm considered.
Based on site conditions the economy of the system needs to be evaluated and selection is
made accordingly.

1.7 Sources of DWF:

1. Domestic wastewater: A certain quantity of water is supplied daily by the water works
department, for domestic use. This water gets consumed in various ways, and therefore all of it does
not reach the sewer. The wastewater reaching the sewers will be that part of the water which is used
for flushing water closets (WC), Urinals, washing clothes bathing, washing utensils etc
2. Industrial wastewater: This is the wastewater generated by the industry after consuming water for
its manufacturing processes.
3. Wastewater from public facilities: This is the wastewater from schools, cinemas, hotels, railway
stations, street washings.
4. Groundwater infiltration: This is the quantity of groundwater that infiltrates into the sewers. It
depends upon the nature and condition of sewer joints.

1.7.1 Factors affecting DWF:

(i) Rate of water supply
(ii) Population growth
(iii) Type of area served
(iv) Infiltration of ground water
1. Rate of water supply: The quantity of wastewater produced from a community would depend on
the rate of water supply per capita per day. The quantity of wastewater entering the sewers would be
less than the total quantity of water supplied. This is because of the fact that the water is lost in
domestic consumption (i.e cooking etc), evaporation, lawn sprinkling or gardening, fire fighting,
industrial consumption etc. However, private source of water supply (i.e. water from domestic wells,
bore wells etc) and infiltration of sub-soil water in the sewers increase the wastewater flow rate. This
extra water that enters the sewers can be assumed to approximately equal to the water lost in
consumption etc. On this reasoning, one can assume the wastewater flow rates equal to the rates of
water supply by the municipal authorities. If however, one is sure that no extra water enters the

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sewers, the wastewater quantity may be assumed to be 80% of the quantity of water supply. The
sewers should be designed for a minimum of 150 litres per capita per day.
(ii) Population growth: is done by the following methods namely (a) Arithmetic increase method (b)
Geometric increase method (c) Incremental increase method (d) Decrease rate of growth method (e)
Graphical extension method (f) Master plan method (g) ratio and correlation method (h) growth
composition and analysis method. Of the various methods above, the suitable approach is to base the
estimation on anticipated ultimate density of population or floor space index(FSI)
If info. on population is not available in the master plan of the town, then the following densities
suggested by Manual on sewage and sewerage treatment prepared by public health and environmental
engineering organization
S.No Size of Town (population) Density of population per hectare
1 Upto 5000 75 – 150
2 5000 – 20,000 150 – 250
3 20,000 – 50,000 250 – 300
4 50,000 – 100,000 300 – 350
5 Above 100,000 350 – 1000
In cities where floor space index (FSI) or floor area ratio (FAR) limits are fixed by the municipal
authorities, population density may be easily worked out as illustrated below.
Roads : 20%
Gardens : 15%
Schools :6 %
Markets :3 %
Hospitals and dispensaries :2 %
46 %
Therefore area available for residential development = 100 – 46 = 54%
Let us consider an area of 1 hectare (= 104m2)
Therefore actual total floor area of residential development = 0.54 x 104 x FSI
Let us assume FSI as 0.5
Therefore area available for residences = 0.54 x 104 x 0.5 = 2700m2
Assume a floor area requirement of 9 m2 per person,
Density of population/hectare = 2700/9 = 300
(iii) Type of area served: The quantity of wastewater produced depends upon whether the area to be
served is residential, commercial, or industrial. The wastewater from the residential area directly
depends upon the rate of water supply. If there is no infiltration of water in the sewers, and if there is
no private sources of supply, the wastewater produced from the residential area may be assumed to be
equal to 70 to 80% of the water supplied through the public supply system. The amount of wastewater
produced from the industrial locality depends upon the types of industries and their corresponding
industrial processes. The same is the case of commercial undertakings. The sewage flow rates can be
determined after careful study of the various process involved.
(iv) Infiltration of ground water: Ground water may infiltrate into the sewers through the leaky
joints. Exfiltration is the reverse process which indicates the flow of wastewater from the sewer into
the ground. While due to the infiltration the quantity of flow through sewer increases, exfiltration
results in decrease in the flow and consequent increase in the pollution of ground water. Both
infiltration as well as exfiltration are undesirable and takes place due to imperfect joints. However,
infiltration is much more important from the point of sewer design. Also, infiltration unnecessarily
increases the load on the treatment works.
Infiltration of water into sewer depends upon the following factors:
(i) Depth of sewer below ground water level
(ii) Size of sewer
(iii) Length of sewer through infiltration prone zone.
(iv) Nature and type of soil through which sewer is laid
(v) Type of joints, workmanship etc.
(vi) Sewer material

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1.8 CHARACTERISTICS OF SEWAGE:

A. Physical characteristics:
The physical characteristics of sewage are
(i) Total solids
(ii) Specific gravity
(iii) Colour
(iv) Odour
(v) Temperature
(i) Total Solids (TS) : Sewage is turbid due to the presence of solids. The total solids content may be
combination of suspended solids and dissolved solids which again may be subdivided into volatile
solids and/or fixed solids.
a. Procedure for finding total solids: Let empty wt. of crucible be W 1 grams. Take 50 ml (Volume V
ml) of the sewage sample in a crucible and evaporate the sample to dryness at 105 0C in a hot air oven.
Cool the crucible and weigh the residue along with the crucible. Let it be W2 grams.
Total solids in mg/l= (W2 - W1) x 1000x1000/V

b. Suspended Solids(SS): Those impurities that are larger than 2 micron which are filtered out in a
whatman filter paper (whatman glass microfiber filter 0.7 to 2 micron) are called suspended solids.
100 mg/l is the maximum SS limit allowed in sewage if it has to be discharges in inland waters.
Record the empty weight of the filter paper as W1 grams. Filter a known volume of sewage, say 20 ml
through the above filter paper and oven dry the filter paper. Now weigh the weight of the filter paper
along with content, say W2 grams.
Suspended solids (SS in mg/l) = (W2 - W1) x 1000 x 1000/V
c. Again settleable solids are those that can settle in an Imhoff cone for 1 hour (i.e. first 45 minutes
with occasional stirring towards the edges of the cone + next 15 minutes of undisturbed quiescent
time). Generally > 100 µm particle size easily settle on their own by gravity in an Imhoff cone, while
1-100 µm called supra-colloidal and 0.08 to 1 µm called colloidal particles may require a coagulant to
neutralize their charge. Dissolved (or) soluble solids are those that are < 0.08 µm in size and 2100
mg/l is the maximum limit allowed in sewage for discharge into inland waters. In a STP, if a particle
can settle down by gravity within 2 hours in a sedimentation tank, it is generally called settleable
solids.
d. Volatile solids: Most organic matter upon heating to a temperature of 5500C, will evaporate (or)
volatilize directly. Note down the empty weight of the clean silica crucible say W 1 grams. Take a
known quantity of sewage sample, say 50 ml in the silca crucible and oven dry the sample at 105 0C.
Let the weight of the crucible along with its contents after cooling it to atmospheric temperature be
W2 grams. Now keep the silica crucible along with its contents in a muffle furnace and heat it to
5500C. Cool the silica crucible in a desiccator and weigh the crucible along with its contents, say W3
grams.
Volatile solids (VS in mg/l) = (W2 – W3) x 1000x 1000/V
e. Fixed Solids: Most inorganic particle (or) inert matter will not volatilize at 550 0C and will remain
in the crucible after heating to 5500C.
Hence Fixed solids (FS in mg/l) = (W3 – W1) x 1000x 1000/V

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(ii) Specific gravity: Nearly equal to water, 1

(iii) Colour: light brown to dark black. The blackening of sewage is often due to formation of various
sulphides particularly ferrous sulphide.
(iv) Odour: musty odour to offensive odour. Hydrogen sulphide(H 2S) has a rotten egg offensive
odour. Also other compounds like indol, skatol, cadaverin and mercaptons may cause more offensive
odours than H2S gas.
(v) Temperature: Generally the temperature of sewage is 200C in our country which is ideal for
biological activities.

B. Chemical Properties:
The chemical characteristics are (i) pH value (ii) chloride content (iii) Nitrogen content (iv)
Phosphorus content (v) Fats, oils and grease content (vi) Sulphates, sulphides and H2S gas (vii)
DO (viii) BOD (ix) COD (x) TOC
(i) pH value: Range is from 6.5 to 9. Fresh sewage is alkaline, i.e pH is 7.3 to 7.5 and as time
passes it becomes acidic > 7
(ii) Chloride content: Originates from kitchen waste, human faeces and urinary discharges. About
50 mg/l of chloride is added by human excreta for sewage flow of 150 lpcd. The permissible
limit of chloride is 2.00 mg/l if it has to be discharged into inland surface water.
(iii) Nitrogen content: The principal nitrogenous organic compounds are proteins, amines, amino-
acids and urea while ammonium salts are inorganic. Ammonia-nitrogen, nitrites-nitrogen,
nitrates-nitrogen, organic nitrogen, albuminoid nitrogen are some sources of nitrogen in sewage.
(iv) Phosphorus content: sources like food- residues containing phosphorus, Synthetic detergents
contribute to phosphorus in sewage. Generally domestic sewage contains adequate quantities of
phosphorus.
(v) Fats, oils and grease content: Major food components like butter, lard, margarine and vegetable
oils, meats, seed, nuts and some fruits contribute to fats and oils. 10 mg/l is the maximum fats
and oils limit allowed in sewage if it has to be discharges into inland waters.
(vi) Sulphates: Sulphates and sulphides are formed due to decomposition of various sulphur
containing substances present in sewage. The decomposition leads to the evolution of H 2S gas
causing bad smell and odour, besides causing corrosion of concrete sewer pipes. 2 mg/l is the
maximum Sulphide limit and 1000 mg/l is the maximum Sulphate limit allowed in sewage if it
has to be discharges in inland waters.
(vii) Dissolved oxygen (DO): The sewage normally contains DO less than 4 ppm. But in stream (or)
river the minimum amount of dissolved oxygen at which the fish life survives is 4 ppm. Now
while discharging treated effluent into stream (or) river, the determination of DO of the stream or
river is very important so as to ensure that fish & other aquatic life are not killed in its near
vicinity. DO content is measured by winkler method or by DO probe which is widely used.
Effects of oxygen demanding waste on water bodies:
 By depleting DO concentration, fish & other oxygen consuming aquatic life will die.
 Addition of water-soluble nutrients like nitrates and phosphates causes excessive growth of algae
and other water plants which depletes the oxygen levels in water.
 Suspended Sediment is very dangerous because it causes depletion in water's light absorption
capacity thus retarding the dispersion of pollutants. Also settled sediment at the bottom may
undergo anaerobic decomposition thus releasing harmful gases like H 2S into water.
 Certain toxins like ammonia and sulfides may retard aquatic growth in water.

(viii) Biochemical Oxygen demand (BOD5): It is the amount of oxygen consumed for the aerobic
stabilization of organic matter present in the sewage (or) wastewater by a group of aerobic micro-
organisms kept in an incubator for a period of 5 days at 20 0C in the dark. BOD measures the
amount of food (or organic carbons) that bacteria can oxidize.
First stage BOD: It is the amount of oxygen required for the microorganisms in the sample to
oxidize carbonaceous matter present in the sewage. (also called carbonaceous BOD). Normally 5
days at 200 C is taken as the standard to measure the first stage BOD which is about 60 to 70%
complete.

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Second stage BOD: It is the amount of oxygen required for certain autotropic bacteria to oxidize
non-carbonaceous matter such as ammonia to nitrites and nitrates. (also called nitrogenous
oxygen demand). At 200 C the reproductive rate of nitrifying bacteria is very slow and it takes
from 6 to 10 days for them to reach significant numbers and exert a measurable oxygen demand.

Significance of conducting a BOD test:

1. BOD test is used as a key to measure the amount of biodegradable matter present in
surface waters (or) the pollutional load placed on it.
2. BOD is used as a means for predicting the progress of aerobic decomposition in
polluted streams and the degree of self purification accomplished in given intervals of
time.
3. BOD test is the most common parameter for defining the strength of untreated and
treated municipal and industrial wastewater.
4. In treatment plants the oxygen requirements and tank sizing of aerobic treatment processes
are based on BOD loadings.
Limitations of BOD test:
1. This test does not have any stochiometric validity. (i.e) The arbitrary 5 day period does not
correspond to the point where all the waste is consumed.
2. Need for acclimated seed. (i.e) a high concentration of active, acclimated seed bacteria is
required.
3. Pretreatment is needed when dealing with toxic wastes and the effects of nitrifying organisms
must be reduced.
4. Only the biodegradable organics are measured.
(ix) Chemical oxygen demand (COD): is the measure of oxygen equivalent of the organic matter
present in sewage (or) wastewater that can be chemically oxidised to CO 2 & water by using
dichromate in an acid solution. This test is performed at elevated temperatures within 3 hours and
is represented by this equation
catalyst
CaHbOc + Cr2O7-2 + H+ Cr+3 + CO2 + H2O
heat

COD is the total measurement of all chemicals in the water that can be oxidized. A COD test
measures all organic carbon with the exception of certain aromatics (benzene, toluene, phenol,
etc.) which are not completely oxidized in the reaction. COD is a chemically chelated/thermal
oxidation reaction, and therefore, other reduced substances such as sulfides, sulfites, and ferrous

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iron will also be oxidized and reported as COD. NH3-N (ammonia) will NOT be oxidized as
COD.
Significance of COD test:
1. Many organic substances which are difficult to oxidize biologically, can be oxidized
chemically by this test. (eg.) Lignin and glucose can be completely oxidized by this test.
2. COD test is helpful in indicating toxic conditions and the presence of biologically resistant
organic substances, provided we minus the BOD value as well as the chemically
oxidizable substances value from it.
Limitations of COD test:
1. The COD test is unable to differentiate between biologically oxidizable and biologically
inert organic matter.
2. It does not provide any evidence of the rate at which the biologically active material would
be stabilized under conditions that exist in nature.
Differentiate between BOD and COD:
S.No BOD COD
1. Measures the amount of Measures chemically oxidizable organic
biodegradable organic matter only. matter which includes both biologically
oxidizable and biologically inert organic
matter
2. It measures the rate at which the It does not provide any evidence of the rate at
biodegradable organic matter is which the biologically active material would
stabilized by aerobic micro- be stabilized under conditions that exist in
organisms under natural conditions. nature
3. This test is usually performed for a This test is performed at elevated
period of 5 days at 200C temperatures within 3 hours
Significance of BOD/COD ratio:
(i) The BOD test takes 5 days to complete while the COD test takes only 3 hours. In treatment
plants, for laboratory analysis, we can correlate the BOD values with COD values for a particular
type of wastewater. However, this could require validating the BOD COD correlation over a
long term period of time, so that COD could be substituted for BOD analysis.
(ii) The BOD/COD ratio is used to find out the measure of food value in wastewater. If the ratio
is higher, then it indicates higher food and less toxicity. More importantly the BOD is not due to
food organics alone but also due to nitrates. Nitrates could cause oxygen depletion and mosquito
breeding.
a. If BOD COD ratio ≥ 0.5 then it indicates fast biological decomposition and is easily treatable
by biological means. For food process and beverage industrial wastewater the BOD5/COD ratio
is > 5.
b. If the BOD/COD ratio < 0.5, this wastewater can be treatable by biological means but slowly
because the acclimatization of microorganisms that help in the degradation process takes time.
Industrial wastewater usually has BOD5/COD less than 5.
c. If the BOD/COD ratio is above 0.2, then it indicates that the biological treatment for this
wastewater influent is possible. But for us to do so, an acclimatized seed may have to be
developed in-house in the laboratory and batch tested in actual conditions.
d. If the BOD/COD ratio is below 0.2, then the biological treatment of this wastewater is very
difficult, since some toxic component is present in it which is responsible for inhibiting the
biological process.

(x) Total organic carbon (TOC): Every organic matter contains carbon as its primary constituent
and it is important to express organic matter in terms of carbon content. Known concentration of
such chemical compounds in a given wastewater will this enable us to theoretically calculate the
carbon present in that wastewater per litre of solution.
TOC test is specially applicable to small concentrations of organic matter. The TOC test
consists of acidification of the wastewater sample to convert inorganic carbon to CO2 which is
stripped. The sample is then injected into a high temperature furnace where it is oxidised in the

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presence of a catalyst. The CO2 that is produced is quantitatively measured by means of an

infrared analyser, and converted instrumentally to original organic carbon content. The error due
to the presence of inorganic carbon can be eliminated by acidification and aeration of the sample
prior to the analysis.
The Carbonaceous Analyser, patented by Dow chemical company provides measure of TOC
of an aqueous sample in approximately 2 minutes. The test is rapid, accurate, and correlates
moderately well with BOD. However, certain organic compounds may not be oxidized, and the
measured TOC will be slightly less than the actual amount present in the sample.

1.9 Relative stability: the ratio of available oxygen in the effluent (as D.O., Nitrate and nitrite) to
the total oxygen required to satisfy the first stage BOD demand. It is generally expressed as the
percentage of total oxygen required and can be expressed by the equation:
Relative stability - S = 100 [1 – (0.794)𝑡20 ]
S = 100 [1 – (0.630)𝑡37 ]
S, the relative stability t20 and t37 represent the time in days for a sewage sample to decolourize a
standard volume of methylene blue solution, when incubated at 20 0C (or) 370C respectively. The
decolourization caused by the enzymes produced by anaerobic bacteria, infact, is an indication of the
available oxygen in oxidising the unstable organic matter.

1.10 Population Equivalent: The industrial wastewater (IW) are generally compared with per
capita normal domestic wastewaters, so as to rationally charge the industries for the pollution caused
by them. The strength of the IW is [standard BOD 5 of industrial sewage] = [standard BOD5 of
domestic sewage/person/day x Population Equivalent].
The average standard BOD 5 of domestic sewage is worked out to be about 0.08 kg/day/person.
Hence if BOD5 of sewage coming from an industry is worked out to be 300 kg/day, then
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝐵𝑂𝐷5 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑢𝑠𝑡𝑟𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 300
Population Equivalent = = = 3750
0.08 𝑘𝑔/𝑑𝑎𝑦 /𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑜𝑛 0.08

1.11 ESTIMATING SEWAGE DISCHARGE:

Sewage discharge must be estimated correctly. Otherwise sewers prove
- To be too much of size resulting in unnecessary investments
- To be inadequate resulting in overflow
Therefore sewage discharge is theoretically equal to the water supplied to the public but it varies
practically due to
(i) Addition due to unaccounted private water supplies.
(ii) Additions due to infiltration.
(iii) Subtractions due to water losses.
(iv) Subtraction due to water not entering sewerage system
Therefore the net quantity of sewage produced is equal to 75 to 80% of accounted water supply.
As per the Bureau of Indian Standards, IS:1172-1993, a minimum water supply of
200 litres per capita per day (lpcd) should be provided for domestic consumption in cities
with full flushing systems. IS:1172-1993 also mentions that the amount of water supply may
be reduced to 135 lpcd for the LIG and the economically weaker sections (EWS) of the
society and in small towns [Modi 1998].
Eg. If 200 lpcd is the water requirement, then the sewage quantity estimated is 0.8 x 200 = 160 lpcd

DESIGN PERIOD: The future period for which provision is made in designing the capacities of
various components of a sewerage system. Sewerage projects are normally designed to meet the
requirements over a period of 30 years after their completion. However the period of 30 years may be
modified in respect to certain components depending on the useful life of a product as follows:
1. Sewer network(i.e., Laterals, Submains and Mains) – 30
2. Sewage Treatment units – 30 years
3. Pumping stations - 30 years
4. Pumping Machinery – 15 years

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5. Effluent disposal and utilization – 30 years

1.12 Procedure to quantify sanitary sewage flow:

Quantity of sewage flow = Per capita water supply x expected population (lit/day to m3/sec) (or)
= Per capita sewage x expected population (lit/day to m3/sec)
Assuming 80% of water supplied appearing as sewage
Qav = 0.8 x Quantity of sewage flow
Assuming Peak sewage flow QP = 3 x Qav (m3/sec)
The sizes of the sewers are easily designed for the maximum hourly flows with sewers running 3/4th
full.
The sewers must be checked for their minimum velocities at minimum hourly flow.
Estimating peak drainage discharge:
Maximum rate of storm runoff is also called peak drainage discharge. To design peak runoff, the
frequency of rainfall has to be considered. The frequency of rainfall to be adopted in design should
neither be too large as to cause heavy investments, nor should it be small to cause frequent flooding.
The runoff of the storm water flow depends upon the following factors:
(i) Catchment area
(ii) Ground slope:
(iii) Permeability of ground
(iv) Extent of impervious area such as buildings, paved yards, non-absorbent road surface etc.
(v) Extent of vegetation growth
(vi) Rainfall intensity
(vii) Rainfall duration
(viii) Condition of ground prior to the rainfall
(ix) Concentration or compactness of catchment area
(x) Climatic conditions such as wind, humidity, temperature etc
(i) Catchment area: The catchment area or drainage area to be served by a sewer can be
determined from the map of the town or city. Since the coefficient of runoff depends on
the type of surface, the portions of the catchment area or drainage area having different
types of surfaces should be determined separately.
(ii) Ground slope: If the ground slope is more, the time taken for the runoff to flow is
increased. The inlet time Ti decreases with increase in ground slope.
(iii) Permeability of ground: - The more the permeability of the ground the lesser is the
storm water flow - inversely proportional
(iv) Impermeability factor: If the ground is relatively impervious, more runoff takes place.
The percentage of rain water that is available in the form of runoff is known as
impermeability factor or runoff coefficient. Runoff coefficient: The runoff coefficient
represents the fraction of the total rainfall that is available in the form of storm water (or
rain water) flow or runoff reaching a sewer. Its value depends on the imperviousness and
the shape of the catchment area or drainage area, and the duration of storm. The runoff
coefficient increases with the increase in the imperviousness of the catchment area or
drainage area, because greater is the imperviousness of the area, lesser will be the
infiltration and hence greater will be the runoff.
(v) Extent of vegetative growth: The more the vegetative growth the lesser will be the storm
runoff - inversely proportional
(vi) Rainfall intensity: The value of rainfall intensity factor Ri in mm/hr or cm/hr can be
worked out from the rainfall records of the area. However R also depends upon the
frequency and the duration of the storm.
(vii) Condition of ground prior to the rainfall: If the ground is saturated with moisture then
the storm runoff would immediately start after the rainfall and if the ground is dry it is
vice versa since the ground would absorb moisture.
(viii) Climatic conditions such as wind, humidity, temperature etc: The storm water runoff
is also dependent on wind, humidity and temperature.

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Procedure for estimating storm water runoff:

The following two methods are commonly followed:
(A) Rational formula (B) Empirical formulae
(A) RATIONAL FORMULA:
The rational formula is mostly used for the design of storm water drains. The following factors are
considered ;
(i) Catchment area (A)
(ii) Impermiability factor (I) of the catchment area
(iii) Intensity of rainfall (R )
1 1
Q = 36 x K x PC x A , if PC is in cm/hr and Q = 360 x K x PC x A , if PC is in mm/hr -----eq. 1
Where Q = runoff (or) storm water flow, m3/s
K = runoff coefficient (or) impervious factor of runoff (or) the ratio of precipitation to runoff
K = 0.9 for paved areas, 0.15 for lawns & gardens and 1 for impervious area
Pc (or) I (or) i = critical rainfall intensity (or) equal to time of concentration, cm/hr
A = Catchment area in hectares
Values of runoff coefficient K for various surfaces
S.No Type of surface K value
1 Water-tight roof surface 0.70 – 0.95
2 Asphalt pavement in good order 0.85 – 0.90
3 Stone, brick, wood-block pavement with cemented joints 0.75 – 0.85
4 Same as above with uncemented joints 0.50 – 0.70
5 Water bound macadam roads 0.25 – 0.60
6 Gravel roads and walks 0.15 – 0.30
7 Unpaved streets and vacant lands 0.10 – 0.30
8 Parks, lawns, gardens and vacant lands 0.05 – 0.25
9 Wooded lands 0.01 – 0.20

Values of runoff coefficient K for different types of localities

Average approximate
S.No Type of locality population density in Values of K
persons / hectare
1 Extreme suburban areas with 20 to 40 %
75 - 125 0.35
parking and widely detached houses
2 Suburban areas with widely detached houses 125 - 150 0.45 – 0.55
3 Areas with 50 % attached houses and 50 %
375 - 500 0.65
detached houses
4 Areas closely built-up 500-625 0.75
5 Business areas more than 625 0.85
Time of concentration: The longest time, without unreasonable delay, that will be required for a drop
of water to flow from the farthest point of the drainage area to the point of concentration (i.e the point
at which maximum runoff is being estimated). It is the time required for the flood discharge to reach
the maximum limit. The time of concentration at a given point in the drain for working out discharge
can be obtained by
Tc = Ti + Tf
Ti = inlet time or overland flow time or time of equilibrium. It is the time taken by the rainfall to run
from the most distant point of the watershed to the inlet of the sewer.
0.385
𝐿3
Ti = (0.885 )
𝐻
Where L = Length of overland flow in kilometres from the critical point to the mouth of the drain
H = Total fall of level from the critical point to the mouth of the drain
Tf = channel flow time (or) gutter flow time. It time taken by the water to flow in the drain channel
from the mouth to the considered point.

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𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔ℎ𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛

Tf = , units = distance / velocity
𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑑𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛
Tc = Ti + Tf
The intensity of rainfall during this much time can be easily obtained from the standard intensity
duration curves. The value of intensity so obtained is still the rainfall intensity at the rain gauge
station and is called the point rainfall intensity. In order to make it effective over the entire catchment
area multiply by a factor called dispersion factor (or) areal dispersion factor. The resultant value will
be nothing but Pc to be used in eq.1
In the absence of standard rainfall intensity-duration curves, the value of Pc can be determined by two
ways:
(i) The value of one hour rainfall of a given frequency at a given place can be found out from
the charts, shown in plates 3.1 (a), (b) and (c). This value of one hour rainfall is
multiplied by the aerial distribution factor, so as to obtain PO. The value of P O is further
2
multiplied by the factor ( ) so as to obtain Pc.
1+𝑇𝐶
2
Pc = PO ( ) , where 𝑇𝐶 = time of concentration in hours
1+𝑇𝐶

(ii) Since the intensity of rainfall is inversely proportional to the duration of the rain, an
intensity duration curve can be represented by a generalized equation of the form
𝑎
P=
𝑇+𝑏
P = rainfall intensity in cm/hr
T = time in minutes
𝑎 and 𝑏 are constants. The value of a & b are found out by health ministry of Britain as follows:
75
For T varying between 5 to 20 minutes, P =
𝑇+10
100
For T varying between 20 to 100 minutes, P =
𝑇+20
Other generalized equations:
a. For locations where rainfall is frequent:
343
P= (5 year frequency)
𝑇+18
b. For rains having frequency of 10 years:
38
P=
√𝑇
c. For rains having frequency of 1 year:
15
P = 0.620
𝑇
d. Kuichlings formula:

267
P= (for storms having 10 year frequency)
𝑇+20
305
P= (for storms having 15 years frequency)
𝑇+20

(B) Empirical formula’s for peak drainage discharge :

(i) Burkli Ziegler formula:
1 𝑆𝑂
Qp =( ) (k'. p.A. √ )
465 𝐴

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Where Qp = peak runoff in m3/s

k'= runoff coefficient (average of 0.7)
p = maximum rainfall intensity over the entire area (2.5 to 7.5 cm/hr)
A = Drainage area in hectares
𝑆𝑂 = slope of the ground surface in m / 1000 m

(ii) Dickens formula:

3
Qp = C𝑀4
Qp = peak discharge in m3/s
M = Catchment area in km2
C = a constant depending upon all factors which affect runoff (average value is 11.5)

(iii) Ryve’s formula:

Applicable to south Indian catchments,
2
Qp = C1𝑀3
Here Qp, C1, M have the same meaning as dicken’s formula. (C1 = 6.8)

(iv) Inglis formula:

123 𝑀
Qp = = 123√𝑀
√𝑀+10.4
where Qp amd M have the same meaning as dicken’s formula

(v) Nawab Jung Bahadur formula:

1 ′
Qp =C2𝑀′ [0.93 – ( 14) log 𝑀 ]
′
The value of constant C2 varies between 48 to 60. 𝑀 is the catchment area in hectares.

(vi) Dredge or Burge’s formula:

𝑀
Qp = 19.6 2
𝐿3
Where L = length of the drainage basin in km

1.13 FACTORS CONSIDERED FOR SELECTING SEWER MATERIALS:

Following factors should be considered before selecting material for manufacturing sewer
pipes:
a. Resistance to corrosion:
Sewer carries wastewater that releases gases such as H2S. This gas in contact with moisture
can be converted in to sulfuric acid. The formation of acids can lead to the corrosion of
sewer pipe. Hence, selection of corrosion resistance material is must for long life of pipe.
b. Resistance to abrasion:
Sewage contain considerable amount of suspended solids, part of which are inorganic
solids such as sand or grit. These particles moving at high velocity can cause wear and tear
of sewer material. This abrasion can reduce thickness of pipe and reduces hydraulic
efficiency of the sewer by making the interior surface rough.
c. Strength and durability:
The sewer pipe should have sufficient strength to withstand all the forces that are likely to
come on them. Sewers are subjected to considerable external loads of backfill material and

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traffic load, if any. They are not subjected to internal pressure of water. To withstand
external load safely without failure, sufficient wall thickness of pipe or reinforcement is
essential. In addition, the material selected should be durable and should have sufficient
resistance against natural weathering action to provide longer life to the pipe.
d. Weight of the material:
The material selected for sewer should have less specific weight, which will make pipe
light in weight. The lightweight pipes are easy for handling and transport.
e. Imperviousness:
To eliminate chances of sewage seepage from sewer to surrounding, the material selected
for pipe should be impervious.
f. Economy and cost:
Sewer should be less costly to make the sewerage scheme economical.
g. Hydraulically efficient:
The sewer shall have smooth interior surface to have less frictional coefficient.

1.14 MATERIALS FOR SEWERS:

1. Asbestos Cement Sewers:
 These are manufactured from a mixture of asbestos fibers, silica and cement.
Asbestos fibers are thoroughly mixed with cement to act as reinforcement.
 These pipes are available in size 10 to 100 cm internal diameter and length up to 4.0
m.
 These pipes can be easily assembled without skilled labour with the help of special
coupling, called ‘Ring Tie Coupling’ or Simplex joint.
 The pipe and joints are resistant to corrosion and the joints are flexible to permit
12o deflection for curved laying.
 These pipes are used for vertical transport of water. For example, transport of
rainwater from roofs in multistoried buildings, for transport of sewage to grounds,
and for transport of less foul sullage i.e., wastewater from kitchen and bathroom.
Advantages
 These pipes are light in weight and hence, easy to carry and transport.
 Easy to cut and assemble without skilled labour.
 Interior is smooth (Manning n = 0.011) hence, can make excellent hydraulically
efficient sewer.
Disadvantages
 These pipes are structurally not very strong.
 These are susceptible to corrosion by sulphuric acid. When bacteria produces H 2S,
in presence of water, H2SO4 can be formed.

2. Plain Cement Concrete or Reinforced Cement Concrete:

Plain cement concrete (1: 1.5: 3) pipes are available up to 0.45 m diameter and
reinforcement cement pipes are available up to 1.8 m diameter. These pipes can be cast in
situ or precast pipes. Precast pipes are better in quality than the cast in situ pipes. The
reinforcement in these pipes
can be different such as single cage reinforced pipes, used for internal pressure less than
0.8 m; double cage reinforced pipes used for both internal and external pressure greater
than 0.8 m; elliptical cage reinforced pipes used for larger diameter sewers subjected to
external pressure; and hume pipes with steel shells coated with concrete from inside and
outside. Nominal longitudinal reinforcement of 0.25% is provided in these pipes.
Advantages of concrete pipes:

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1. Strong in tension as well as compression.

2. Resistant to erosion and abrasion.
3. They can be made of any desired strength.
4. Easily moulded, and can be in situ or precast pipes.
5. Economical for medium and large sizes.
6. These pipes are available in wide range of size and the
trench can be opened and backfilled rapidly during
maintenance of sewers.
Disadvantages:
1. These pipes can get corroded and pitted by the action of H2SO4.
2. The carrying capacity of the pipe reduces with time because of
corrosion.
3. The pipes are susceptible to erosion by sewage containing silt and
grit.
4. The concrete sewers can be protected internally by vitrified clay
linings. With protection lining they are used for almost all the
branch and main sewers. Only high alumina cement concrete
should be used when pipes are exposed to corrosive liquid like
sewage.

3. Vitrified Clay or Stoneware Sewers:

These pipes are used for house connections as well as lateral sewers. The size of the pipe
available is 5 cm to 30 cm internal diameter with length 0.9 to 1.2 m. These pipes are
rarely manufactured for diameter greater than 90 cm. These are jointed by bell and spigot
flexible compression joints.
Advantages
1. Resistant to corrosion, hence fit for carrying polluted water such
as sewage.
2. Interior surface is smooth and is hydraulically efficient.
3. The pipes are highly impervious.
4. Strong in compression.
5. These pipes are durable and economical for small diameters.
6. The pipe material does not absorb water more than 5%
of their own weight, when immersed in water for 24 h.
Disadvantages
7. Heavy, bulky and brittle and hence, difficult to transport.
8. These pipes cannot be used as pressure pipes, because they are
weak in tension.
9. These require large number of joints as the individual pipe length
is small.

4. Brick Sewers:
This material is used for construction of large size combined sewer or particularly for
storm water drains. The pipes are plastered from outside to avoid entry of tree roots and
ground water through brick joints. These are lined from inside with stone ware or ceramic
block to make them smooth and hydraulically efficient. Lining also make the pipe resistant
to corrosion.

5. Cast Iron Sewers:

These pipes are stronger and capable to withstand greater tensile, compressive, as well as

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bending stresses. However, these are costly. Cast iron pipes are used for outfall sewers,
rising mains of pumping stations, and inverted siphons, where pipes are running under
pressure. These are also suitable for sewers under heavy traffic load, such as sewers below
railways and highways. They are used for carried over piers in case of low lying areas.
They form 100% leak proof sewer line to avoid ground water contamination. They are less
resistant to corrosion; hence, generally lined from inside with cement concrete, coal tar
paint, epoxy, etc. These are joined together by bell and spigot joint. IS:1536-1989 and
IS:1537-1976 provides the specifications for spun and vertically cast pipes, respectively.

6. Steel Pipes:
These are used under the situations such as pressure main sewers, under water crossing,
bridge crossing, necessary connections for pumping stations, laying pipes over self
supporting spans, railway crossings, etc. They can withstand internal pressure, impact load
and vibrations much
better than CI pipes. They are more ductile and can withstand water hammer pressure
better. These pipes cannot withstand high external load and these pipes may collapse when
negative pressure is developed in pipes. They are susceptible to corrosion and are not
generally used for partially flowing sewers. They are protected internally and externally
against the action of corrosion.

7. Ductile Iron Pipes:

Ductile iron pipes can also be used for conveying the sewers. They demonstrate higher
capacity to withstand water hammer. The specifications for DI pipes is provided in
IS:12288-1987. The predominant wall material is ductile iron, a spheroidized graphite cast
iron. Internally these pipes are coated with cement mortar lining or any other polyethylene
or poly wrap or plastic baggging/ sleeving lining to inhibit corrosion from the wastewater
being conveyed, and various types of external coating are used to inhibit corrosion from
the environment. Ductile iron has proven to be a better pipe material than cast iron but they
are costly. Ductile iron is still believed to be stronger and more fracture resistant material;
like most ferrous materials, it is susceptible to corrosion. A typical life expectancy of
thicker walled pipe could be up to 75 years, however with the current thinner walled
ductile pipe the life could be about 20 years in highly corrosive soils without a corrosion
control program like cathodic protection.

8. Plastic sewers (PVC pipes):

Plastic is recent material used for sewer pipes. These are used for internal drainage works
in house. These are available in sizes 75 to 315 mm external diameter and used in drainage
works. They offer smooth internal surface. The additional advantages they offer are
resistant to corrosion, light weight of pipe, economical in laying, jointing and maintenance,
the pipe is tough and rigid, and ease in fabrication and transport of these pipes.

9. High Density Polythylene (HDPE) Pipes:

Use of these pipes for sewers is recent development. They are not brittle like AC pipes and
other pipes and hence hard fall during loading, unloading and handling do not cause any
damage to the pipes. They can be joined by welding or can be jointed with detachable
joints up to 630 mm
diameter (IS:4984-1987). These are commonly used for conveyance of industrial
wastewater. They offer all the advantages offered by PVC pipes.

10. Glass Fiber Reinforced Plastic Pipes:

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This martial is widely used where corrosion resistant pipes are required. GRP or FRP can
be used as a lining material for conventional pipes to protect from internal or external
corrosion. It is made from the composite matrix of glass fiber, polyester resin and fillers.
These pipes have better strength, durability, high tensile strength, low density and high
corrosion resistance. These are manufactured up to 2.4 m diameter and up to 18 m length
(IS:12709-1989).

11. Lead Sewers:

1. They are smooth, soft and can take odd shapes.
2. This pipe has an ability to resist sulphide corrosion.
3. However, these pipes are very costly.
4. These are used in house connection.

1.15 Environmental Protection Rules-1986

General Standards for discharge of Environmental Pollutants Part A: Effluent
Sl. CHARACTERISTICS INLAND ONLAND FOR PUBLIC Marine Coastal
No. SURFACE IRRIGATION SEWERS areas
WATER
1. Colour and odour -- -- - -
2. Suspended solids mg/l max 100 200 600 (a) For process
wastewater
100
(b) For cooling
water effluent
10% above
suspended
matter of
influent
3. Suspended particle size of suspended Shall pass 850 -- -- (a) For floatable
solids micron IS sieve solids, max. 3
mm
(b) Settleable
solids, max. 850
microns.
4. Dissolved solids (Inorganic) mg/l, (max) 2100 2100 2100 -
5. pH value 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0 5.5 to 9.0
6. Temperature C, max Shall not exceed -- -- Shall not exceed
50 above the 50 above the
receiving water receiving water
temperature. temperature
7. Oil and grease mg/l, max 10 10 20 20
8. Total residual chlorine mg/l, max 1 -- -- 1
9. Ammonical nitrogen (as N) mg/l, max 50 -- 50 50
10. Total kjeldahl nitrogen (as NH3) mg/l, max 100 -- -- 100
11 Nitrate Nitrogen (as N) mg/l, max 10 -- -- 20
12. Free ammonia as (NH3) mg/l, max 5 -- -- 5
13. Biochemical oxygen demand mg/l, max. 30 100 350 100
14. Chemical oxygen demand mg/l, max 250 -- -- 250
15. Arsenic (as Ar), g/1, max 0.2 0.2 0.2 0.2
16. Mercury (as Hg), mg/l,max 0.01 -- 0.01 0.01
17. Lead (as pb), mg/l, max 0.1 -- 1 2
18. Cadmium, mg/l, max 2 -- 1 2
19. Hexavalent chromium (as Cr+6), mg/l 0.1 -- 2 1
20. Total chromium (as Cr+), mg/l, max 2 -- 2 2
21. Copper (as Cu), mg/l, max 3 -- 3 3
22. Zinc (as Zn), mg/l, max 5 -- 15 15

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23. Selenium (as S) mg/l, max 0.05 -- 0.05 0.05

24. Nickel (as Ni) mg/l, max 3 -- 3 5
25. Chloride (as Cl) mg/l, max 1000 600 1000 -
26 Fluoride (as F) mg/l, max 2 -- 15 15
27. Dissolved phosphates (as P) mg/l, max 5 -- -- --
28. Sulphate (as SO4), mg/l, max 1000 1000 *
29. Sulphide (as S), mg/l, max 2 -- -- 5
30. Cyanide (as CN), mg/l, max 0.2 0.2 2 0.2
31. Manganese (as Mn), mg/l, max 2 -- 2 2
32. Iron (as Fe) mg/l, max 3 -- 3 3
33. Phenoile compounds (as C6H5OH), mg/l, 1 -- 5 5
max
34. Bio-assay test 90% survival of 90% survival of 90% survival 90% survival of
fish after 96 fish after 96 of fish after 96 fish after 96
hours in 100% hours in 100% hours in 100% hours in 100%
effluent effluent effluent effluent
35. Radioactive materials
(a) Alpha emitters, micro curie mg/l, max 10-7 10-8 10-7 10-7
(b) Beta emitters, micro curie mg/l, max 10-6 10-7 10-6 10-6

1.16 SEWER APPURTENENCES:

1. INLET: Inlets are devices meant to admit storm water (or rain water) and surface
wash flowing along the roads and convey the same to storm water sewers or
combined sewers. An inlet is a small box like chamber made of brickwork or concrete
having an opening at the top in vertical or horizontal direction for the entry of storm
water and surface wash. The water from this chamber leaves through an outlet
provided at its bottom and carried by a pipeline to a nearby manhole.

INLETS permit storm water to drain into the inlet chambers. It has got grating so that
only storm water enters. Impurities like leaves, twigs are prevented so that they do not
clog the sewers via inlet chambers.
Note: Inlets do not permit (or) store any impurities into it and it has got a sloped
bottom that directly leads the storm water to the sewer pipe.

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2. Catch basins: Catch basins are provided to stop the entry of heavy debris present in
the storm water into the sewers. However, their use is discouraged because of the
nuisance due to mosquito breeding apart from posing substantial maintenance
problems. At the bottom of the basin space is provided for the accumulation of small
sized impurities. Perforated cover is provided at the top of the basin to admit rain
water into the basin. A hood is provided to prevent escape of sewer gas.

3. Clean outs: Clean outs are constructed in the sewer lines for the purpose facilitating cleaning
of sewers. An inclined pipe is connected to the sewer line. Through the inclined pipe the

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cleaning rod is inserted in sewer to clean the sewer. The other end of the clean-out pipe is
brought up to ground level and a cover is placed at ground level. A clean-out is generally
provided at the upper end of lateral sewers in place of manholes. During blockage of
pipe, the cover is taken out and water is forced through the clean-out pipe to lateral sewers to
remove obstacles in the sewer line. For large obstacles, flexible rod may be inserted through
the clean-out pipe and moved forward and backward to remove such obstacle.

4. Lamp holes: Lamp holes are the openings constructed on the straight sewer line
between two man-holes which are far apart and permit the insertion of a lamp into the
sewer to find out obstructions if any inside the sewers from the next manhole. These
are provided along the sewer lines when:
(i) There is a curve in the sewer line and due to shortage of space, manholes are
not possible.
(ii) There is a change in gradient and it is not possible to construct a manhole.
A vertical shaft is connected to the sewer by a T bend.
While inspecting, lamp is inserted in lamp holes and from the manholes on both sides
of the lamp hole it is checked whether the light is seen or not. If sewer is chocked
light will not be seen in the nearby manhole. Lamp holes have become obsolete and
they are not recommended nowadays.

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5. Manholes: Manhole is a masonry or R.C.C chamber constructed at suitable intervals

along the alignment of the sewers to provide access for the purpose of inspection,
testing, cleaning and removal of obstruction from the sewer lines. They also help in
joining sewer lines and in changing the direction or alignment as well as gradient of
sewer line.
Recommended spacing of Manholes as per IS: 4111(Part 1) - 1991
a. Dia: 30cm – spacing 45m
b. Dia: 31cm – 50cm – spacing 75m
c. Dia: 51cm – 90cm – spacing 90m
d. Dia: 91cm – 120cm – spacing 120m
e. Dia: 121cm – 150cm – spacing 250m
f. Dia: >150cm – spacing 300m

Depending upon the depth the manholes can be classified as: (a) Shallow Manholes,
(b) Normal Manholes, and (c) Deep Manholes
(a) Shallow Manholes: These are 0.7 to 0.9 m depth, constructed at the start of the
branch sewer or at a place not subjected to heavy traffic conditions. These are
provided with light cover at top and called inspection chamber.

(b) Normal Manholes: These manholes are 1.5 m deep with dimensions 1.0 m x 1.0 m
square or rectangular with 1.2 m x 0.9 m. These are provided with heavy cover at
its top to support the anticipated traffic load.

Fig. shows Rectangular manhole for depth 0.9 m to 2.5 m

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Whenever there is a substantial change in direction of the sewer (or) whenever

there is height difference between two sewers, a manhole is preferred because
these are the places where the sewage is likely to get clogged or blocked. Manhole
covers are provided for inspection and are placed either at the same level of the
ground or at an elevated level from the ground. They are built in such a way as to
withstand traffic loads coming from top.

(c) Deep Manhole: The depth of these manholes is more than 1.5 m. The section of
such manhole is not uniform throughout. The size in upper portion is reduced by
providing an offset. Steps are provided in such manholes for descending into the
manhole. These are provided with heavy cover at its top to support the traffic load.

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(d) When a sewer connects with another sewer, where the difference in level between
invert level of branch sewer and water line in the main sewer at maximum
discharge is greater than 0.6 m, a manhole may be built either with vertical or
nearly vertical drop pipe from higher sewer to the lower one (Figure 8.4). The
drop manhole is also required in the same sewer line in sloping ground, when drop
more than 0.6 m is required to control the gradient and to satisfy the maximum
velocity i.e., non-scouring velocity.
The drop pipe may be outside the shaft and encased in concrete or supported
on brackets inside the shaft. If the drop pipe is outside the shaft, a continuation of
the sewer should be built through the shaft wall to form a rodding and inspection
eye, provided with half blank flange. When the drop pipe is inside the shaft, it
should be of cast iron and provided with adequate arrangements for rodding and
with water cushion of 150 mm depth at the end. The diameter of the drop pipe
should be at least equal to incoming pipe.

6. Inverted siphons: An inverted siphon or depressed sewer is a sewer that runs full
under gravity flow at a pressure above atmosphere in the sewer. Special feature of
inverted siphon is that its profile is depressed below the hydraulic grade line. This is
very useful when a sewer line has to be laid across a stream, subways, a highway cut,
or obstacles such as buried pipes. The purpose is to carry the sewer under the
obstruction and regain as much elevation as possible after the obstruction is passed.
This terminology ‘siphon’ is a misnomer as there is no siphon action. As the inverted
siphon requires considerable attention for maintenance, it should be used only where
other means of passing an obstacle in line of the sewer are impracticable.

It is obvious that this section of sewer lies below the hydraulic grade line, flowing full
and under pressure. Unlike the main sewer pipe, the siphon pipes flow under pressure
and must have flow velocities greater than 3 ft/s (0.9 m/s) to keep material suspended.
Therefore, several siphons having smaller diameters than the main sewer may be
required, generally two or three different sizes of parallel pipes are provided to carry

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the minimum, average and peak flows. Since the siphon is subject to pressure, while
flowing, ductile iron pipes or concrete encasement is provided in order to prevent
leakage. The siphon may be constructed as a U with vertical or inclined legs.

As the siphon is depressed below the hydraulic gradient line, self-cleansing velocity is
ensured by providing one pipe for minimum dry weather flow and subsequent pipes
for the balance flow when the flow exceeds the minimum.
7. Automatic flushing tanks: These tanks have stored water, which is discharged into
the sewers at regular intervals in order to flush them.

Working method:
1. Initially the water level in the tank is below the sniff hole, the water level in the U
tube is at level X-Y
2. As the water level in the tank rises above the sniff hole, further entry of air into the
bell is checked, and the air caught up in the bell is compressed.
3. The compressed air exerts pressure on the water surface at X due to which the water
level in the longer arm of the U-Tube is depressed.
4. As the water level in the tank increases, the water level in the longer arm of the U-
tube goes on depressing more, till a stage is reached when the water level in the

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longer arm of the U-tube reaches the bend portion. At this stage some compressed air
is released through the shorter arm of the U-tube and a corresponding quantity of
water enter the bell.
5. It is so adjusted that the stage of step (4) is reached just when the water level in the
tank reaches the discharge line. At this stage the head of water above the bell becomes
greater than that in the shorter arm of the U-tube. The compressed air is suddenly
removed from the longer arm of the U-tube and the siphonic action starts due to
which water from the tank is discharged into the sewer through the enlarger pipe.
6. The siphonic action continues until the water level in the tank falls upto the level of
sniff hole. The air then enters the bell portion through the sniff hole and it breaks the
siphonic action.
7. The water level in the two arms of the U-tube again assumes the position X-Y and the
process is repeated.

8. Storm water regulators: These are used for preventing overloading of sewers,
pumping stations, treatment plants and other disposal arrangements. Normally used in
case of combined sewers and divert excess storm water to natural stream or river.
There are three types of regulators; 1. Leaping weir, 2. Overflow weir and 3. Siphon
spillway.
1. Leaping weir: When the discharge is small, the sewage directly falls into the
intercepting sewer but in case of excess sewage, all or part of the storm water
leaps across the opening and is thus, diverted from the intercepting sewer. The
excess storm water is then carried to natural stream or river. Intercepting sewers
runs at right angles to the combined sewer.

Fig shows Leaping weir used in combined sewer.

2. Overflow weir: In this type of weir the excess sewage is allowed to overflow in
the channel.

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9. Siphon spillway: This is an automatic arrangement and works on the principle of siphonic
action. This arrangement of diverting excess sewage from the combined sewer is most
effective because it works on the principle of siphon action and it operates automatically. The
overflow channel is connected to the combined sewer through the siphon. An air pipe is
provided at the crest level of siphon to activate the siphon when water will reach in the
combined sewer at stipulated level.

It is used to divert excess sewage from the combined sewer. The short arm of the siphon is
connected to the combined sewer. The long arm of the siphon is connected to an overflow
channel which carries excess sewage to a natural stream or river or to any point of discharge.
The crest level of the siphon is kept exactly same as the overflow level in the combined
sewer. An air pipe connects the throat of the siphon to the combined sewer. An air pipe
connects the throat of the siphon to a combined sewer. The opening of the air pipe is held at a
level slightly above the overflow level in the combined sewer. The siphonic action does not
start as long as the level of sewage in the combined sewer is lower than that of the crest of the
siphon, Since the dry weather flow occupies only the lower portion of the combined sewer,
corresponding to which the level of sewage is lower than that of the crest of the siphon, the
siphonic action does not take place as long as there is only dry weather flow in the combined
sewer. When the flow in the combined sewer increases due to the addition of storm water (or
rain water) during rainfall, and the level of sewage rises above the crest level, the opening of
the air pipe in the combined sewer gets closed, the level of sewage in the short arm of the
siphon rises and the sewage overflows the crest of the siphon. Since the opening of the air
pipe in the combined sewer gets closed, the supply of air through the air pipe is cut off and
the air contained in the siphon is carried away by the flow. Due to suction thus produced the
siphon gets primed and a continuous flow of sewage through the siphon takes place. This
removes the excess sewage into the overflow channel. When the sewage in the combined
sewer falls below the overflow level, the opening of the air pipe gets exposed thereby air
enters the siphon and it breaks the siphonic action. The siphon spillway is the most effective
device for diverting excess sewage from the combined sewer because of the following reasons
1. It works on the principle of siphonic action and it operated automatically. 2. It has a higher
discharge carrying capacity.
10. Oil and grease trap: The principle of oil and grease removal is by floatation. The oil and
grease being lighter when compared to that of sewage will float on the surface. Generally two
or more compartments are provided wherein the sewage flows at mid-height from one

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chamber to the other. The oil floats on top and does not pass into the next chamber. The inlet
is provided on the top while the outlet is provided at the bottom in general.

Oil and grease traps are provided to remove them from sewage before it enters the sewer line.
They are located near the sources that contribute to it like automobile workshops, garages,
kitchens of restaurants, grease and oil producing industries e.t.c
Reasons to remove oil and grease:
1. They will stick to inner surface of sewers and become hard and cause obstruction to flow
2. Sewage treatment via biological process may become difficult as they do not allow
oxygen to penetrate and affect biochemical reactions. Due to sticky nature, the bacteria
gets adsorbed and are rendered inactive.
3. The possibility of explosion in the sewer line increases.

1.17 PUMPS USED FOR PUMPING SEWAGE:

1. Centrifugal pumps
2. Reciprocating pumps; and
3. Pneumatic ejectors or Air lift pumps
1. Centrifugal pump: Centrifugal pumps are most commonly used for pumping sewage,
because these pumps can be easily installed in pits and sumps, and can easily transport the
suspended matter present in the sewage without getting clogged so often.
The horizontal axis flow type of centrifugal pumps are generally used. They are
provided with either open or closed three vane type impellers. The clearance between the
vanes is kept large enough so as to allow any solid matters entering the pump to pass out with
the liquid sewage. This helps in preventing the clogging of pumps and damage to the rotor.
Such pumps are therefore called non-clog pumps.

3vane type impeller of a non-clog centrifugal pump

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In another type of centrifugal pumps, the solid matter present in sewage are broken up
(i.e. disintegrated) as they pass thorough the pump the pump impeller. Such pumps are called
disintegrating pumps. They are used when sewage is to be directly disposed off into the sea
through the outfall sewer.
Both the above types of centrifugal pumps, no doubt, work at low efficiency (of the
order of 30 to 60 percent), but their use avoids the necessity of installing pre-screens for grit
removal before pumping. However, when sewage has, already been screened, ordinary
centrifugal pump of high efficiency may be used.

Other types of centrifugal pumps, such as, volute, turbine type, etc. may also sometimes be
used depending upon the circumstances.
The centrifugal pumps may be installed either submerged beneath the sewage in the
wet well or a sump, or the pumps may be installed in the dry well or pit, below the sewage
level in the wet well. In the first case, the pump is set with a vertical shaft reaching to the
motor placed above the sewage level in a dry space, the pump being always submerged, and
therefore, called submersible pump.
In the later case, the pump is set in a dry well, and sucks its inlet supplies through the
suction pipe from the adjacent wet well containing sewage as shown in the fig.6.3. The
exterior of the pump, in this case, is always dry, and as such, its inspection and maintenance
is easy, and the chances of corrosion of the pump casing, shaft and bearings are much as
compared to that in the case of a submersible pump. This type of setting is, therefore,
generally preferred.
2. Reciprocating pump: Reciprocating pumps are much less employed these days for
sewage pumping, because of their high initial cost, difficulty in maintenance and greater wear
and tear of valves. However, in cases where it is required to deal with difficult sludges and
where large quantity of sewage is to be pumped against low heads, reciprocating pumps may
be used after passing the sewage through screen with 20 mm spacing.
Reciprocating pumps are usually of two types:

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(1) Ram type and

(2) Propeller type.
In the ram type reciprocating pump, a piston or plunger moves through glands displacing
liquid in a vessel. The piston or plunger is not arranged to fit closely in the cylinder. The
diaphragm pump is an example of the ram type reciprocating pump which is commonly used.
In the propeller type reciprocating pump a multiple blade screw rotor or propeller moves
vertically inside a pump-casing causing the sewage to be lifted. It draws liquid through inlet
guide vanes and discharges through outlet guide vanes. Thus its action is somewhat similar to
that of a ship’s propeller. The axial-flow screw pump is an example of the propeller type
reciprocating pump.
Diaphragm Pump:
Diaphragm pump is a ram type reciprocating pump. As shown in Fig. 7.10 a piston or plunger
is attached to the centre of a circular rubber diaphragm, the outer edge of which is bolted to a
flange on the pump. The flexibility of the diaphragm permits the up and down motion of the
plunger thereby increasing or decreasing the capacity of the pump-casing.

Fig.7.10 shows diaphragm pump

During upward movement of the plunger, liquid flows into the pump through the suction
valve, while downward movement of the plunger closes the suction valve, and forces the
liquid through the delivery valve (provided in the plunger) out to discharge. The diaphragm
pump is simple, durable and needs no priming. However, after some use, the rubber
diaphragm wears out needing replacement.
3. Air Pressure Pumps or Pneumatic Ejectors:
Pneumatic ejectors are used for pumping or lifting small quantities of sewage.
The conditions favouring installation of pneumatic ejectors are-
(i) Where small quantity of sewage is to be lifted from cellar or basement of a building to a
high level sewer;
(ii) Where the quantity of sewage from a low lying area does not justify the construction of a
pumping station; and
(iii) Where a centrifugal pump of small capacity is likely to clog.
Pneumatic ejectors use compressed air for lifting sewage. Fig. 7.11 shows Shone’s pneumatic
ejector which is commonly used in practice. It consists of an air tight cast iron chamber with
a spindle having two cups-upper cup D which is inverted and lower cup C. Two reflux valves
(or check valves) V1 and V2 are provided at the inlet and the outlet points respectively.
A compressed air inlet valve V3, is provided which is operated by a lever arrangement with a
counter weight as shown in the figure. Compressed air is supplied through this valve at a

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pressure of about 0.15 N/mm2 (1.5 kg (f)/cm2). The air in the chamber can escape through the
exhaust.

The sewage flowing under gravity enters the chamber through the inlet valve K, and rises
slowly in the chamber, the outlet valve V2 and the compressed air inlet valve V3 being closed
at this stage. As the sewage level rises the air from the chamber escapes through the exhaust.
When the sewage level reaches the rim of the upper inverted cup D the air inside this cup is
entrapped. Further rise in the sewage level in the chamber makes the entrapped air to exert
vertical pressure on the inner bottom surface of the upper inverted cup D. Due to this the cup
D is lifted up and through the lever arrangement the compressed air inlet valve F3 gets opened
and at the same time the exhaust gets closed.
The air under pressure entering the chamber from valve V 3 forces the sewage inside the
chamber to flow through the outlet valve V2 into the outlet pipe which carries it to a high
level sewer. At this stage when the outlet valve V 2 and the compressed air inlet valve F3 are
open, the inlet valve V1 is closed.
The discharge of the sewage from the chamber continues till the sewage level in the chamber
falls to such a point that the weight of the lower cup C and the sewage it contains causes the
cup C to drop. The lower cup C and the upper inverted cup D being connected by one rod,
when the cup C drops the cup D also drops and at the same time the compressed air inlet vale
V3 gets closed and the exhaust gets opened.
The sewage then starts entering the chamber through the inlet valve V 1 as before and the
process is repeated. The outlet valve V2 opens in one direction only and therefore the back
flow of sewage from the high level sewer into the chamber of the ejector is prevented.
Further while the ejector is discharging the inlet valve V 1, remains closed and the incoming
sewage is retained above the inlet valve or it is directed towards another ejector.
To obtain nearly uniform rate of sewage flow, the ejectors are usually installed in pairs so
that when one is filling the other is discharging.
The merits of pneumatic ejectors being that they have no clogging parts and they work
silently with the compressed air easily supplied from a central station. These may be

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employed economically for a maximum lift of about 6 m or so. They also avoid the necessity
of installing screens and underground suction wells. Their capacities are, however, small
varying from 500 to 10 000 litres.
The principal demerit of pneumatic ejectors is that they have very low efficiency seldom
above 15 per cent except when working against low heads.
1.18 PUMPING STATIONS:
Sewer pumping stations (also called lift stations) are used to move wastewater to higher
elevations in order to allow transport by gravity flow. Sewage is fed into and stored in a
sealed underground pit, commonly known as a wet well. When the level rises to a
predetermined point, a pump will be started to lift the sewage upward through a pressurised
pipe system from where it is discharged into a gravity manhole again. From here the cycle
starts all over again until the sewage reaches its point of destination – usually a treatment
plant. The building where pumps and other accessories are installed for lifting sewage is
called a sewage pumping station. Such a building should preferably be located near a natural
disposal body like stream so that in case of break-down of pumping, the accumulated sewage
can overflow into this natural stream.
1.18.1 NECESSITY OF SEWAGE PUMPING:
1. The sewage from low lying pockets in a city has to be pumped, so as to throw it up into
the city’s sewer pipes flowing under gravity and running at higher elevations.
2. When the area is flat, pumping units at suitable intervals along long sewers can be
installed to pump sewerage from one section to another and running under gravity. Such
pumps are called boosters.
3. Pumps are required when outfall sewer is lower than the level of the treatment plant, the
sewage will have to be pumped up. Similarly when the level of the treated sewage coming
out from the treatment plant is lower than the level of the source of its disposal, it will
have to be pumped before it can be disposed off. Within a treatment plant between unit
treatment operations, sewage may need to be pumped to subsequent treatment units.
4. For disposing off the sewage from the basement of large commercial buildings, sewage
may have to be pumped, as the street sewer may be higher than the level of the basement
floor.
5. When sewage has to go be transported across a high ridge, then instead of driving a
tunnel through the ridge, it may prove more economical to pump the sewage into sewers
laid across the slope of the ridge at reasonable heights.
1.18.2 A typical sewage pumping station would have the following components namely 1.
Grit channel 2. Coarse and fine screen 3. Wet well (or) Sump well 4. Dry well (or) Pump
room 5. Motor room 6. Rising mains 7. Emergency exit pipe and 8. Other accessories

Fig. shows typical sewage pumping station

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The construction and functioning of these components are described below:

1. Grit chamber: It is necessary to remove much of the material like grit, gravel, sand,
etc, from sewage before pumping so as to minimize wear and tear of the pump
impeller and of the raising main. Due to the reduced velocity of 0.15 to 0.3 m/sec in a
grit channel, the grit settles down and is removed in an endless chain operated by
power.
2. Screen: The floating matter such as rags, sticks, hair, papers, etc need to be removed
from sewage which otherwise would cause chocking of pump impellers. Two types of
screen namely coarse screen having clear openings of 5 to 10 cm and then fine screen
having clear opening of 2.5 to 5 cm to intercept all the floating matter.
3. Wet well (or) Sump well: The purpose of providing a sumo well is to form a suction
pit from which the pump may draw sewage through the suction pipe. It also acts as a
equalising basin to minimize load fluctuations on the pump. A float is provided in this
sump in such a way that when the sewage rises above the float level, the switch gets
pressed and pump automatically starts functioning, thus pumping sewage.
4. Dry well (or) Pump well: In this room, the pumps are installed, and the end of their
suction pipe is placed in the suction pit or the wet well. The general layout of the
pump room should be carefully made and it may include a repair workshop, office
and store room etc. The number and size of the pumps required should be carefully
worked out, and depends upon the quantity of sewage likely to enter into the station.
5. Motor room: This room is situated above the pump room, and accommodates the
electric motor which drives the pumps. The other appurtenances like automatic
starters, flow recorders, etc. are also installed in this room.
6. Rising mains: The sewage, after being pumped is taken to the high levelled gravity
sewer through the rising mains. The raising main may be of cast iron or asbestos
cement pressure pipes. To avoid siltation, the velocity of flow in the rising main
should not be less than 0.75 m/sec at any time of flow ; and to avoid excess head loss,
the maximum velocity of flow in the rising main is usually limited to 1.8 m/sec and
never allowed to exceed 3 m/sec.
1.18.3 Problems in sewage Pumping:
1. Sewage has foul characteristics.
2. Sewage contains a lot of suspended and floating materials. These make the running of
pumps difficult and may cause frequent clogging of the pumps.
3. Sewage contains organic and inorganic wastes which may cause corrosion and erosion of
parts of the pump thus reducing the life of the pumps.
4. Sewage contains disease producing bacteria and organisms which may cause health
hazards to the persons working at pumping station.
5. The rate of flow of sewage varies continuously and hence pumping operations are to be
adjusted accordingly.
6. The pumps should be of high order reliability since failure of pumps will lead to flooding
which may cause unbearable nuisance.
7. The size of the sump is limited since large sized sumps will result in the settlements of silt
and organic matter at its bottom. The provision of sump or wet well is made to give only
a little storage space.
1.18.4 Factors in site selection of a pumping station:
1. If a large quantity of sewage is to be pumped, the site should be near stream, or a storm
water drain into which sewage could be discharged under emergencies.
2. The site should be aesthetically satisfactory.

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3. The pumping station should be located and constructed in such a manner that it will not
be flooded at any time.
4. Storm water pumping stations should be located such that water may be impounded
without creating undue amount of flood damage.
5. Station should be located such that it is easily accessible under all weather conditions.

1.19 TYPES OF PUMPS USED TO PUMP SEWAGE:

Following are the types of pumps commonly used for sewage and storm water pumping:
(i) Centrifugal Pumps
(ii) Reciprocating Pumps
(iii) Propeller or axial flow pumps
(iv) Air pressure pumps or ejectors
1. Centrifugal Pumps:
Centrifugal pumps are most widely used for sewage pumping and storm water. As it is easy
to install this in pits, sumps. It can thus transfer the suspended matter present in sewage
quickly without getting clog too often. However these pumps work on the principle of
centrifugal force. It generally has 2 parts – (i) the casing and (ii) the impeller. The impeller
rotates with high speed inside the casing. The clearance between the vane is so large thus
prevents the clogging. Such pumps are therefore termed as non-clog pumps.

There are three classes of centrifugal pumps –

 dis-integrator pumps
 full way pumps
 free way pumps
The disintegrator type pumps are provided with conical shaped impeller having sharp edged
grooves, along with fixed knives set against the impeller. Due to this the solids present in the
sewage are cut up and disintegrated during pumping and hence the sewage can be directly
disposed-off into the sea. The full way pumps can pass down solids upto 1500 mm diameter
through the pump casing into the rising main without getting chocked. Freeway pumps are
used when sewage containing solids of more than 150 mm diameter are required to be passed
through the pump casing.
Centrifugal pumps can be classified under –
 Axial flow pumps
 Mixed flow pumps

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 Radial flow pumps or centrifugal pumps

2. Reciprocating pumps –
The reciprocating pumps have thus become obsolete in modern sewage pumping station. Its
initial cost is high and comparatively efficiency is low. Reciprocating pumps are generally of
2 types – (i) ram type and (ii) propeller type.
Diaphragm pump is an example of Ram type Reciprocating pump.
3. Propeller pumps –
The axial flow pump is sometimes called a propeller pump.
4. Air pressure pumps or ejectors –
It works on the action of compressed air. Used in following conditions –
 small quantity of sewage is to be lifted.
 pumping station construction is not possible.
 centrifugal pumps usually clogged.
Fundamentally, a pneumatic ejector pump includes a tank for holding fluid sewage. Once
the sewage reaches a predetermined level in the tank, the contents are ejected by compressed
air. The sewage ejection function is initiated by a float which ascends when the fluid level in
the tank rises to a certain level.
Fundamentally, it consists of a receiver or “pot’ that allows liquids and solids to enter without
restriction. When the pot becomes filled, compressed air is introduced to displace the
contents up to a higher discharge line. The pneumatic ejector is unique as a pumping
mechanism because no mechanical parts are involved in the actual pumping of the material,
and it has no practical limitations on head. Under normal flow conditions, the equipment is
designed to operate with a one minute cycle. The cycle consists of two phases: Filling the pot,

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and then the discharging of its contents. Operation is completely automatic with a choice of
electric or mechanical control systems.

1.20 CORROSION IN SEWERS:

With the gradual deposition of organic and inorganic matter at the bottom of the sewer, the flow of
sewage in lower layers become stale leading to anaerobic conditions favorable for sulphate reducing
bacteria which converts sulphate to H2S as shown. The H2S gas bubble their way to the surface and
gets released in the atmosphere and makes contact with slime in the crown of the sewer, which
contains more bacteria. Thiobacillus thioxidants convert H2S gas to H2SO4. The sulphuric acid
deposited at the crown of the sewer reacts with concrete and form CaSO4 which falls down as droplets
making the crown of the sewer uneven and thinner. This phenomenon is known as crown corrosion.

1.20.1 Corrosion control measures:

The following measures should be considered during design for corrosion control in sewers.
Design shall provide for self-cleansing velocity, good ventilation, low turbulence, flushing
facilities, minimal periods of flow and minimum stagnation.

1. Pipes made of inert material are preferable.

2. In case of large diameter pipes. RCC with sacrificial lining of 25 to 50 mm thick is the
suitable pipe material.
3. Lining the inside of the RCC pipe with sulphate resistant or high alumina cement as
sacrificial layer may increase the life expectancy of the pipe by 3 to 5 times.
4. RCC pipes are manufactured with sulphate resistant cement when the soil contains
sulphur and other corrosive substances.
5. For metallic pipes (DI or MS) the acceptable linings are cement mortar lining either
with sulphate resistant or high alumina cement.
1.21 DRAINAGE IN BUILDINGS:
Drainage is the method of removing surface or sub-surface water from a given area. Drainage
systems include all of the piping within a private or public property that conveys sewage,
rainwater, and other liquid waste to a point of disposal. The main objective of a drainage

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system is to collect and remove waste matter systematically to maintain healthy conditions in
a building. Drainage systems are designed to dispose of wastewater as quickly as possible
and should prevent gases from sewers and septic tanks from entering residential areas.
Types of drainage system in buildings:
1. Waste water is from showers, basins, kitchen sinks, washing machines, and the like. This
is also called grey water. Normally a minimum of 75 mm dia. pipes are used for drainage of
waste water.
2. Soil water or sewage is from WCs and urinals. This is also called black water. Minimum
of 100 mm diameter pipes are used for waste water. When run horizontally, soil water pipes
should be run at a steeper slope, such as 1:40, as they have solids. These can be of cast iron
or of PVC.
A grease trap should be used when draining waste from kitchens, grease should not be
allowed to enter the normal drainage system. A grease trap is nothing but a small inspection
chamber. The grease floats, and should be removed manually on a daily basis. The inlets and
outlets into this chamber should be designed in a way that minimizes disturbance of the
floating grease layer.
Stone ware (ceramic) pipes are used when soil and waste water is to be transported in
external soil. An inspection chamber is used to clean blockage in the line and change
direction of pipes. Inspection chamber is a short version of manholes which are used on the
streets.
1.22 Plumbing in buildings:
(i) ONE PIPE SYSTEM : In one pipe system, a single pipe is used to carry both sullage
and foul sewage.

a. In this system of plumbing the waste connections from sinks, baths, wash basins and
the soil pipe which is connected directly to the drainage system.
b. Gully traps and waste pipes are completely dispensed with.
c. But all the traps of WC.s basins, etc are completely ventilated to preserve the water
seal by a separate vent pipe.
The following precautions should be taken in this plumbing system:
1) All the joints off waste pipes should be air-tight.
2) Each waste pipe should be connected to common stack directly.
3) Vent pipe diameter should not be less than 50 mm.
4) The waste pipe should join the stack, above the soil branch at each floor.

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5) All traps should be provided with a deep water seal of not less than 7.5cm.

(ii) TWO PIPE SYSTEM:

a. In this plumbing system, two pipes are installed.
b. In two pipe system of plumbing is one pipe is used to carry sullage while the other
pipe is used to carry foul sewage.
c. W.Cs and urinals are connected to vertical soil pipe. Baths, kitchens, basins etc are
connected to another separate vertical waste pipe.
d. Soil pipes and waste pipes are provided with separate vent pipes. This system thus
requires four pipes and hence proves very costly.
e. The soil pipe is connected to the drain directly but waste pipe should be
connected through a trapped gully.

(iii) SINGLE STACK SYSTEM:

a. This system is a single pipe without providing any separate ventilation pipe.
b. It uses only one pipe which carries the sewage as well as sullage, and is not
provided with any separate vent pipe, except that it itself is extending up to 2 m
higher than the roof level and provided with a cowl for removal of foul gases as
shown in the figure.

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(iv) PARTIALLY VENTILATED SYSTEM:

a. This is an improved form of single stack system in the sense that in this system, the traps
of water closets are separately ventilated by a separate vent pipe called relief vent pipe.
b. This system uses two pipes as in a single pipe system but the cost of branches is
considerably reduced compared to single pipe system.

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1.23 PART A QUESTIONS:

1. What is the difference between sewage and sullage?
Sewage is the wastewater originating from toilet consisting of putrefying organic solids
and detritus.
Sullage is the dilute water coming from all other points in a house except toilets like
kitchen sinks, wash basins, bathrooms and floor washings.

2. What are the various formulae for estimation of storm water runoff?
1. Rational method
Storm water quantity can be estimated by rational method as below:
Storm water quantity, Q = C.I.A / 360
Where,
Q = Quantity of storm water, m3 /sec
C = Coefficient of runoff
I = intensity of rainfall (mm/hour) for the duration equal to time of concentration, and
A = Drainage area in hectares

3. What is the composition of sewage?

Sewage contains 99.9% water and 0.1% solids by fraction. Out of the 0.1% solids there are
various sub categories like fats, lipids, carbohydrates e.t.c

4. Define BOD?
It is the amount of oxygen consumed for the aerobic stabilization of organic matter present
in the sewage (or) wastewater by a group of aerobic micro-organisms kept in an incubator
for a period of 5 days at 200C in the dark.

5. Define COD?
COD is the measure of oxygen-equivalent of the organic matter in wastewater that can be
chemically oxidised to Co 2 & water, by using, using dichromate in an acid solution. This
test is performed at elevated temperatures within 3 hours.

6. Differentiate between sewer and sewerage.

Sewer is the pipe carrying sewage. Sewerage includes the entire system of collecting
and carrying sewage by water carriage system through a network of sewers along with
its components (various structures, devices, equipments and appurtenances) from its
origin to the treatment plant.

7. What is the significance of BOD/COD ratio?

(i) The BOD test takes 5 days to complete while the COD test takes only 3 hours. In
treatment plants, for laboratory analysis, we can correlate the BOD values with COD
values for a particular type of wastewater. However, this could require validating the
BOD COD correlation over a long term period of time, so that COD could be substituted
for BOD analysis.
(ii) The BOD/COD ratio is used to find out the measure of food value in wastewater. If
the ratio is higher, then it indicates higher food and less toxicity. More importantly the
BOD is not due to food organics alone but also due to nitrates. Nitrates could cause
oxygen depletion and mosquito breeding.
a. If BOD COD ratio ≥ 0.5 then it indicates fast biological decomposition and is easily
treatable by biological means. For food process and beverage industrial wastewater the
BOD5/COD ratio is > 5.

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b. If the BOD/COD ratio < 0.5, this wastewater can be treatable by biological means but
slowly because the acclimatization of microorganisms that help in the degradation
process takes time. Industrial wastewater usually has BOD5/COD less than 5.
c. If the BOD/COD ratio is above 0.2, then it indicates that the biological treatment for
this wastewater influent is possible. But for us to do so, an acclimatized seed may have to
be developed inhouse in the laboratory and batch tested in actual conditions.
d. If the BOD/COD ratio is below 0.2, then the biological treatment of this wastewater is
very difficult, since some toxic component is present in it which is responsible for
inhibiting the biological process.

8. What is the significance in conducting BOD test?

1. BOD test is used as a key to measure the amount of biodegradable matter present in
surface waters (or) the pollutional load placed on it.
2. BOD is used as a means for predicting the progress of aerobic decomposition in
polluted streams and the degree of self purification accomplished in given intervals of
time.
3. BOD test is the most common parameter for defining the strength of untreated and
treated municipal and industrial wastewater.
4. In treatment plants the oxygen requirements and tank sizing of aerobic treatment
processes are based on BOD loadings.
9. What are the limitations of BOD test?
1. This test does not have any stochiometric validity. (i.e) The arbitrary 5 day period
does not correspond to the point where all the waste is consumed.
2. Need for acclimated seed. (i.e) a high concentration of active, acclimated seed
bacteria is required.
3. Pretreatment is needed when dealing with toxic wastes and the effects of nitrifying
organisms must be reduced.
4. Only the biodegradable organics are measured.

10. Differentiate between BOD and COD test.

S.No BOD COD
1. Measures the amount of Measures chemically oxidizable organic
biodegradable organic matter matter which includes both biologically
only. oxidizable and biologically inert organic
matter
2. It measures the rate at which the It does not provide any evidence of the
biodegradable organic matter is rate at which the biologically active
stabilized by aerobic micro- material would be stabilized under
organisms under natural conditions that exist in nature
conditions.
3. This test is usually performed for This test is performed at elevated
a period of 5 days at 200C temperatures within 3 hours

11. Explain first stage BOD and second stage BOD with a graph?
BOD definition: It is the amount of oxygen consumed for the aerobic stabilization of
organic matter present in the sewage (or) wastewater by a group of aerobic micro-
organisms kept in an incubator for a period of 5 days at 200C in the dark. BOD measures
the amount of food (or organic carbons) that bacteria can oxidize.

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First stage BOD: It is the amount of oxygen required for the microorganisms in the
sample to oxidize carbonaceous matter present in the sewage. (also called
carbonaceous BOD). Normally 5 days at 200 C is taken as the standard to measure
the first stage BOD which is about 60 to 70% complete.
Second stage BOD: It is the amount of oxygen required for certain autotropic
bacteria to oxidize non-carbonaceous matter such as ammonia to nitrites and nitrates.
(also called nitrogenous oxygen demand). At 200 C the reproductive rate of nitrifying
bacteria is very slow and it takes from 6 to 10 days for them to reach significant
numbers and exert a measurable oxygen demand.

12. What is the significance in conducting a COD test?

1. Many organic substances which are difficult to oxidize biologically, can be oxidized
chemically by this test. (eg.) Lignin and glucose can be completely oxidized by this
test.
2. COD test is helpful in indicating toxic conditions and the presence of biologically
resistant organic substances, provided we minus the BOD value as well as the
chemically oxidizable substances value from it.

13. What are the limitations of COD test?

1. The COD test is unable to differentiate between biologically oxidizable and
biologically inert organic matter.
2. It does not provide any evidence of the rate at which the biologically active material
would be stabilized under conditions that exist in nature.

14. Define Relative stability.

Relative Stability of sewage effluent may be defined as the ratio of oxygen available
in the effluent ( as DO, nitrite or nitrate) to the total oxygen required to satisfy its first
stage BOD demand. It is expressed as percentage of the total oxygen required, and
can be expressed by the equation:
Relative Stability

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S= 100 [1-(0795) t20]

or

S= 100 [1-(0.630) t37]

Where, S= the relative stability, t 20 and t 37 represent the time in days for a sewage
sample to decolorize a standard methylene blue solution, when incubated at 200C
and 370C respectively.

15. Define population equivalent.

Industrial wastewaters are generally compared with per capita normal domestic
wastewaters, so as to rationally charge the industries for the pollution caused by them.
The strength of the industrial sewage is thus, worked out as below:
[Standard BOD5 of industrial Sewage] = [Standard BOD5 of domestic sewage per
person per day] x [Population equivalent]

16. What is time of concentration?

Time of concentration (tc) is the time required for an entire watershed to contribute to
runoff at the point of interest for hydraulic design; this time is calculated as the time
for runoff to flow from the most hydraulically remote point of the drainage area to the
point under investigation.

17. Define Sullage and MINAS.

Sullage: Waste water coming from kitchen and bathrooms which does not contain
fecal matter.
MINAS: Minimal National Standards (MINAS)
The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) intends to develop Minimum National
Standards (MINAS) for all types of industries with regards to their effluent discharge
(water pollutants), emissions (air pollutants), noise levels and solid waste. The
standards thus developed will be applicable to the concerned industries throughout the
country. The present study, in this series is on rubber products industries.

18. What are the various sources of waste water generation?

The wastewater generated from the household activities contributes to the major part
of the sewage. The wastewater generated from recreational activities, public utilities,
commercial complexes, and institutions is also discharged in to sewers. The
wastewater discharged from small and medium scale industries situated within the
municipal limits and discharging partially treated or untreated wastewater in to the
sewers also contributes for municipal wastewater.

19. Distinguish between dry weather flow and wet weather flow.
Dry weather flows represent all flows within the sewer pipes on a typical day without
precipitation and the results of lower flow to separate sanitary sewer systems.
Wet weather flows include sewage flows and runoff that infiltrate into the sanitary
sewer systems during a storm event. Wet weather flows also include groundwater
flows that enter through defective pipe joints, connections and/or manhole walls.

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20. What are the various types of sewerage system?

Combined system: In combined system along with domestic sewage, the run-off
resulting from storms is carried through the same conduit of sewerage system.
Separate System: In separate system, separate conduits are used; one carrying
sewage and other carrying storm water run-off.
Partially separate system: In this system part of the storm water especially collected
from roofs and paved courtyards of the buildings is admitted in the same drain along
with sewage from residences and institutions, etc. The storm water from the other
places is collected separately using separate storm water conduits.

21. What is meant by self cleansing velocity?

The silting of sewers can be avoided by generating high velocities that would not
permit the solids to settle down. That is velocity should be such as to cause automatic
self cleansing effect. Generation of such a minimum velocity with self cleansing
effect is known as self cleansing velocity.

22. What is meant by non-scouring velocity?

The interior surface of the sewer pipe gets scoured due to the continuous abrasion
caused by suspended solids present in sewage. In order to avoid this, it is necessary to
limit the maximum velocity that will be produced in sewer pipe at any time. This
limiting or non-scouring velocity mainly depends upon the material of sewer.

23. What is meant by limiting velocity?

It is the velocity in between self cleansing velocity and non-scouring velocity. It is
between 0.8m/s and 3m/s. It is maintained to avoid silting of sewers and scouring of
pipe materials.

24. What are the various shapes of sewers?

 Circular
 Egg shaped
 Horse shoe shape
 Parabolic
 Semi-circular
 Rectangular

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25. What are the forces acting on sewers?

 Internal pressure of sewage
 Pressure due to external loads
 Temperature stresses
 Flexural stresses

26. What are the factors to be considered while selecting sewer material?
 Resistance to corrosion
 Resistance to abrasion
 Strength and durability
 Light weight
 Imperviousness
 Economy and cost
 Hydraulic efficiency.

27. What are the various sewer materials?

 Asbestos cement sewers
 Plain cement concrete and reinforced cement concrete sewers
 Hume steel sewers
 Vitrified clay pipes
 Brick sewers
 Cast iron sewers
 Lead sewers
 Plastic sewers

28. What are the tests conducted on sewers after laying?

 Test for leakage.
 Test for straightness and alignment.

29. What are sewer appurtenances? Name few.

Sewer appurtenances are those structures which are constructed at suitable intervals
along sewerage to help in its efficient operation and maintenance.
 Manholes
 Drop manholes
 Lampholes
 Clean-outs
 Street inlets
 Catch basins
 Flushing tank
 Inverted siphons
 Storm regulators

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30. Under what circumstances a drop manhole is provided?

When the difference between the invert level of a branch sewer and peak flow level
of main sewer is more than 600mm at the junction, a drop manhole is provided.

31. What is the use of automatic flushing tanks?

Automatic flushing tanks are tanks in which water is stored and discharged at
intervals into the sewers for flushing them. The flushing tanks are usually provided
at the dead end or head end of the sewers. In automatic flushing tanks the operation
of flushing is done automatically at regular intervals.

32. When do you use an inverted siphon?

An inverted syphon is a section of the sewer which is constructed lower than the
adjacent sections to pass beneath a valley, river, stream, road, railway and such other
obstructions. It conveys sewage from an elevated bank on one side through a
depressed portion to the elevated bank on the other side. It runs full at greater than
atmospheric pressure because the crown is depressed below the hydraulic gradient
line.

33. What are the various methods of ventilation used in sewers?

 Use of ventilating columns
 Use of ventilating manhole covers
 Use of mechanical devices
 Unobstructed outlets
 House vent and soil pipe

34. What are the various circumstances under which sewage has to be pumped?
 Sewage from localized low lying pockets in a city has to pumped.
 When area is flat, lifting of sewage at suitable intervals is done using suitable
pumps.
 For disposing of sewage from basement of large commercial buildings.
 When outfall sewer is lower than the level of treatment plant
 When sewer has to cross a ridge pumping of sewage is economical.

35. Differences between water pipes and sewer pipes.

Water pipes Sewer pipes
Velocity higher than self-cleansing is not To avoid deposition of solids in the pipes
essential, because of solids are not self-cleansing velocity is necessary at all
present in suspension. possible discharge.
It carries water under pressure. Hence, It carries sewage under gravity. Therefore
the pipe can be laid up and down the hills it is required to be laid at a continuous
and the valleys within certain limits. falling gradient in the downward
direction towards outfall point.
These pipes are flowing full under Sewers are design to run partial full at
pressure. maximum discharge. This extra space
ensures non-pressure gravity flow. This
will minimize the leakage from sewer,

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from the faulty joints or crack, if any.

36. What are the various types of Pumps used in sewerage system?
Following types of pumps are used in the sewerage system for pumping of
sewage, sewage sludge, grit matter, etc. as per the suitability:
a. Radial-flow centrifugal pumps
b. Axial-flow and mixed-flow centrifugal pumps
c. Reciprocating pistons or plunger pumps
d. Diaphragm pumps
e. Rotary screw pumps
f. Pneumatic ejectors
g. Air-lift pumps

37. What are the various components of a pumping station?

 Grit chamber
 Coarse and Fine screens.
 Sump well (Wet well)
 Wet well
 Motor room
 Rising mains
 Emergency exit pipes.

38. Name any 4 joints in sewers?

1. Socket and spigot joint
2. Flange joint
3. Cement collar joint
4. Mechanical coupling or mechanical joint
5. Ring-Tite coupling or simplex joint
6. Flexible joint
7. Expansion joint

39. Mention the different plumbing systems adopted for buildings?

1. One pipe system of plumbing 2. Two pipe system of plumbing.

40. What is the function of a wet well?

The sump well is to form a suction pit from which the pump may draw sewage
through the suction pipe. It also acts as an equalizing basin to minimize load
fluctuations on the pump. Capacity of the sump well should be about 15 to 30
minutes of peak flow.

41. Difference between one pipe and two pipe plumbing system

One pipe system Two pipe system

Only one vertical pipe is provided for Two set of vertical pipes are laid, one for
draining both night soil and sullage. draining night soil other for sullage
Cheap compared to two pipe system as it Involves a large number of pipes and is

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involves only one pipe. costly

Suitable for small houses. Not suitable for small houses as it is
difficult to accommodate many pipes.
BOD load will be higher. BOD load will be lower.

42. Write any two computer applications for design of sewer.

SewerCAD is an easy-to-use sanitary sewer modeling and design software
product that thousands of municipalities, utilities, and engineering firms
around the world trust to design, analyze, and plan wastewater collection
systems. Engineers can model both pressurized force mains and gravity
hydraulics with ease, using steady-state analysis with various standard peaking
factors, and extended-period simulations.
SewerGEMS: From urban sewer planning to overflow remediation analysis to
optimized best management practices designs, SewerGEMS provides an easy-
to-use environment for engineers to analyze, design, and operate sanitary or
combined conveyance sewer systems, using built-in hydraulic and hydrology
tools, and a variety of wet-weather calibration methods.

43. List the factors required to be considered while setting a sewage pumping
station.
1. The site selection for the pumping station is important and the area
selected should never get flooded.
2. The station should be easily accessible in all weathers.
3. The storm water pumping station should be so located that the water
may be impounded without causing damage to the properties.
4. Location of the pumping station should be finalize considering the
future expansion and expected increase in the sewage flow.
5. There need to be enough space in the pumping station to replace low
capacity pump with higher capacities as per the need in future.
44. What are the problems encountered in pumping sewage?
1. Sewage has foul characteristics.
2. Sewage consists of solids which may clog the pumps.
3. The sewage may be alkaline or acidic leading to corrosion of
components.
45. What are the advantages of using circular section for sewers?
 They are easily manufactured.
 A circular section gives maximum area for a given perimeter and
hence gives the greatest hydraulic mean depth.
 It has uniform curvature and hence less chance for deposits.
 Most economical section.

46. Sewers are always designed for partial flow. Is it true? Justify your answer.
True. Sewers are always designed for partial flow. Sewers with diameter less
than 0.4 m are designed to run half full at maximum discharge, and sewers
with diameter greater than 0.4 m are designed to flow 2/3 to ¾ full at
maximum discharge. The extra space provided in the sewers provides factor of
safety to counteract against the following factors:

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1. Safeguard against lower estimation of the quantity of wastewater to be

collected at the end of design period due to private water supply by industries
and public. Thus, to ensure that sewers will never flow full eliminating
pressure flow inside the sewer.
2. Large scale infiltration of storm water through wrong or illegal connection,
through underground cracks or open joints in the sewers.
3. Unforeseen increase in population or water consumption and the consequent
increase in sewage production.
47. What are the various formulae for design of sewers?
1. Chezy's formula 2. Basin's formula 3. Manning's formula 4. Hazen-
Williams formula 5. Crimp and Bruge's formula 5. Ganguillet-kutter's formula

48. When manholes are provided?

The manhole is masonry or R.C.C. chamber constructed at suitable intervals along
the sewer lines, for providing access into them. Thus, the manhole helps in
inspection, cleaning and maintenance of sewer. These are provided at every bend,
junction, change of gradient or change of diameter of the sewer.

49. What is the purpose of providing manhole?

a. They are used to carry out inspection, cleaning and removing obstruction in the
sewer line.
b. They facilitate the laying of sewer line in convenient lengths. They are provided
to connect two sewers at every bend, junction, change of gradient or change of
diameter of the sewer.
c. They allow the escape of considerable gases through perforated cover and thus
help in ventilation of sewage.

1.24 Unit I - PART B & C Questions.

1. Explain the various characteristics and composition of sewage and state their
environmental significance.
(or)
Discuss briefly about the physical chemical and biological characteristics of waste
water along with their environmental significance.
2. Discuss various sewerage systems employed highlighting the advantages and
disadvantages of each.
3. Explain the estimation of storm runoff and the factors influencing it?
4. What are the factors affecting dry weather flow? Explain.
5. Describe the general procedure for sanitary sewer design.
6. Explain the factors influencing sanitary sewage flow and its estimation.
7. Explain the various materials used for sewers along with its merits and demerits.
8. Define Sewer appurtenances. Briefly explain them with neat sketches. (Any 4 can
also be asked E.g. : Manholes, automatic flushing tanks, inverted siphons and storm
water regulators)
9. State the clasification of solids present in sewage and the removal methods of each.
10. Explain various systems of plumbing. Write down the main characteristics of each
system. Which system is most useful?
11. Explain one pipe and two pipe system of plumbing in buildings.

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12. What are the problems encountered while pumping of sewage? Discuss briefly the
various types of pumps used in sewage pumping.
13. Discuss the materials used for making sewers along with its advantages and
disadvantages.
14. What are the choices of pumps and sewer materials? Enumerate the factors
considered while selecting a particular pump and sewer material.
15. Discuss the corrosion in sewers and also suggest suitable remedial measures.
16. Explain a sewage pumping station with a neat sketch indicating the various
components.
17. What are the factors considered while selecting a location for a pumping station?
What are the conditions under which sewage has to be pumped?
18. Explain the terms BOD and COD. Differentiate betwen first-stage BOD and second-
stage BOD with a graph.
19. Deduce an equation for first stage BOD.
20. What causes corrosion in sewers? Explain the ways to prevent corrosion in sewers?

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