2010:075

MASTER'S THESIS

Design, Construction and Validation

of an articulated solar panel for
CubeSats

Patrick Höhn

Luleå University of Technology

Master Thesis, Continuation Courses

Space Science and Technology
Department of Space Science, Kiruna

2010:075 - ISSN: 1653-0187 - ISRN: LTU-PB-EX--10/075--SE

Abstract
The aim of the project was an attempt to design a solar panel for CubeSats to address the increasing
power requirements. Therefore solution options for the realization of the various subsystems –
mechanisms, solar cells and materials – were collected and analyzed. This included mechanisms for
actuation, guidance, damping, release and control aspects. In order to maximize the power output
from a specific solar cell, simulations about the influence of the sun-incident angle were performed.
The difference in energy generation between body-fixed panels and articulated panels in one degree
of freedom is in the range of 2 to 3. However, the improvements by articulating in two degrees of
freedom did not show a big increase in generated power for the designated orbit in 400 kilometers
altitude and 40 degrees of inclination.
The proposed design is based on a small stepper motor incorporated with a planetary gear-head. The
selected material for most of the components was aluminum to reduce the mass of the system.
Afterward, the system was validated by vibrational and thermal computational analyses. The
analysis showed that some of the components, in particular the attachments of the mechanism at the
satellite, are suggested to be redesigned with steel instead of the earlier selected aluminum. For
future work, the results from the analyses will be validated by the tests described.
Acknowledgments
I would like to thank the Erasmus Mundus Program and the Space Master Consortium for opening
my mind by providing the experiences of going abroad, meeting people from very different
countries and cultures and studying space engineering. The last two years changed my view of the
world completely.
I want to thank Dr. Rees Fullmer for giving me the chance to work in cooperation with the Space
Dynamics Lab of Utah State University and for his very useful supervision of my thesis at Utah
State University. Special thanks to Robert Burt, Mike Watson and Glen Hansen for their expertise
that ultimately made my work possible. The financing of components and tests from Quinn Young
is also very appreciated. I also want to thank Mike Phillips, Shane Robinson and Keegan Ryan
from the Advanced Aerospace Technologies Lab and Mikulas Jandak from the SpaceMaster
program for their helpful discussions and their efforts to make my stay enjoyable. Special thanks to
Debrup Hui for helping me stay motivated and for helping me in private matters.
I also would like to acknowledge the DICE team for letting me be a member. For supporting me a
lot in the last days of my stay in Utah I am also very thankful to Kazuya Hata and Andrew Simek.
Special thanks to Karen Zobell and Bonnie Ogden for searching for people and administrative
support. I also would like to thank all my friends who helped me during my stay and made it very
enjoyable.
For the very good support offered in Sweden by Dr. Victoria Barabash, Anette Snällfot-Brändström
and Maria Winnebäck I am very thankful. I also would like to acknowledge the support of my
examiners from Luleå University of Technology and Université Paul Sabatier Toulouse III. They
took great care of me so that I could finish everything on time.
I also want to thank my friends from the SpaceMaster program, in particular Fahad, Pooneh, Dan,
Gao, Echo and Jan with whom I spent much time and have had a lot of fun with me during my
studies in Kiruna and other activities.
Last but not least, I want to express my special regards and thankfulness to my family for their great
and continuous support and motivation without my thesis wouldn't have been possible.
Table of Contents
1 Introduction....................................................................................................................................10
2 Previous Work.................................................................................................................................11
2.1 Overview of the solution options............................................................................................11
2.2 Evaluation of Solution options...............................................................................................13
2.2.1 Actuation mechanisms for deployment - rotating...........................................................13
2.2.1.1 Coil spring...............................................................................................................13
2.2.1.2 Flexible joints (includes flexible struts)..................................................................14
2.2.1.3 Shape Memory Alloys (SMA).................................................................................15
2.2.1.4 Torsion springs........................................................................................................16
2.2.1.5 Spiral Spring............................................................................................................17
2.2.1.6 Electric motor..........................................................................................................18
2.2.1.7 Torsion bar spring....................................................................................................18
2.2.1.8 Spin of Satellite.......................................................................................................19
2.2.2 Actuation mechanisms for deployment – linear..............................................................20
2.2.2.1 Deployable boom....................................................................................................20
2.2.2.2 Inflatable booms......................................................................................................21
2.2.2.3 Lanyard Deployment...............................................................................................22
2.2.2.4 Canister Deployment...............................................................................................23
2.2.3 Guiding mechanisms for deployment.............................................................................23
2.2.3.1 Rotating deployment...............................................................................................23
2.2.3.2 Telescopic Cylinder.................................................................................................24
2.2.3.3 Mechanical Guiding................................................................................................25
2.2.3.4 Tether.......................................................................................................................26
2.2.3.5 Scissors shaped booms............................................................................................26
2.2.3.6 Synchronization by rope mechanisms.....................................................................27
2.2.3.7 Flexible Joints..........................................................................................................28
2.2.4 Damping mechanisms for deployment............................................................................28
2.2.4.1 Spiral Spring............................................................................................................28
2.2.4.2 Rotation damper......................................................................................................29
2.2.4.3 Electric Motor..........................................................................................................29
2.2.4.4 External Friction......................................................................................................30
2.2.4.5 Eccentric bolt...........................................................................................................30
2.2.4.6 Electric damping by electro-rheologic / magneto-rheologic fluids.........................31
2.2.4.7 Friction in joints......................................................................................................31
2.2.4.8 Counter-force by Belleville springs.........................................................................32
2.2.4.9 Rubber damper at desired position..........................................................................32
2.2.4.10 Latch at desired position........................................................................................33
2.2.4.11 Torsion spring in hinge..........................................................................................33
2.2.5 Initial Release Mechanism..............................................................................................34
2.2.5.1 Thermal Methods.....................................................................................................34
2.2.5.1.1 Thermal loosening of interference fit..............................................................34
2.2.5.1.2 Heat wire..........................................................................................................35
2.2.5.1.3 Phase Changes (HOP actuators)......................................................................36
2.2.5.1.4 Shape memory alloys devices..........................................................................36
2.2.5.2 Mechanical solutions...............................................................................................37
2.2.5.2.1 Electric motor with rod mechanism.................................................................37
2.2.5.2.2 Release from P-POD........................................................................................37
 2.2.5.2.3 Decompression................................................................................................38
2.2.5.2.4 Pyrotechnical cutter.........................................................................................39
2.2.5.2.5 Mechanical by releasing key...........................................................................39
2.2.5.3 Magnetic solutions..................................................................................................40
2.2.5.3.1 Weakening magnet field by spool....................................................................40
2.2.5.3.2 Cone movement by pusher..............................................................................41
2.2.6 Actuating mechanism for articulation.............................................................................41
2.2.6.1 Flat electric motor...................................................................................................41
2.2.6.2 Piezoelectric motors................................................................................................42
2.2.6.3 High Output Paraffin (HOP) motor with cam.........................................................43
2.2.6.4 Shape memory alloys..............................................................................................43
2.2.6.5 Torsion spring in hinge............................................................................................44
2.2.6.6 Spiral Spring............................................................................................................44
2.2.6.7 Bi-metal strips.........................................................................................................44
2.2.6.8 Torsion bar spring in hinge......................................................................................45
2.2.6.9 By linear displacement............................................................................................45
2.2.6.10 Stepper Motor........................................................................................................46
2.2.7 Control mechanism for articulating................................................................................46
2.2.7.1 Electronic controller................................................................................................46
2.2.7.2 Changing shadowing mechanically.........................................................................47
2.2.7.3 Clamping by electro-rheologic / magneto-rheologic fluids....................................47
2.2.7.4 Photo-chromatic lens...............................................................................................48
2.2.7.5 External friction.......................................................................................................48
2.2.7.6 Photo-diodes with shield for damping ....................................................................49
2.2.8 Types of Solar Cells........................................................................................................49
2.2.8.1 Silicon solar cells.....................................................................................................49
2.2.8.2 Rigid Gallium-Arsenide solar cells.........................................................................50
2.2.8.3 Triple-Junction Solar cells.......................................................................................50
2.3 Thermal Issues .......................................................................................................................51
2.4 Vibration testing......................................................................................................................51
2.5 Materials.................................................................................................................................51
2.5.1 Steel.................................................................................................................................51
2.5.2 Aluminum........................................................................................................................52
2.5.3 PCB.................................................................................................................................53
2.5.4 Titanium..........................................................................................................................53
2.6 Solar Panels.............................................................................................................................54
2.7 Summary and Conclusion.......................................................................................................54
3 Thesis Statement.............................................................................................................................56
4 Plan and approach...........................................................................................................................57
4.1 Approach.................................................................................................................................57
4.2 Decision Table........................................................................................................................58
5 Solution...........................................................................................................................................60
6 Design Prototype............................................................................................................................62
6.1 Revision of Requirements.......................................................................................................62
6.1.1 Orbital Temperatures.......................................................................................................62
6.1.2 Estimation of required solar array area ..........................................................................64
6.2 Improvements by articulating solar panels.............................................................................65
6.3 Assembly of Solar Arrays.......................................................................................................66
6.4 Design of Panel.......................................................................................................................66
6.5 Thermal Expansion.................................................................................................................66
 6.6 Specification of selected electric motor..................................................................................67
7 Evaluation and Testing...................................................................................................................68
7.1 Evaluation by computer based simulations............................................................................68
7.1.1 Vibration analysis............................................................................................................68
7.2 Thermal Expansion.................................................................................................................71
7.3 Evaluation by test of prototype model....................................................................................71
7.3.1 Vibration Test..................................................................................................................71
7.3.1.1 Test specification.....................................................................................................71
7.3.1.2 Test Procedure.........................................................................................................72
7.3.2 Thermal Test....................................................................................................................73
7.3.2.1 Test Specification....................................................................................................73
7.3.2.2 Test Procedure.........................................................................................................73
8 Conclusion......................................................................................................................................74
9 Future Work....................................................................................................................................75
References..........................................................................................................................................76
10 Appendix.......................................................................................................................................79
List of Figures
Figure 1: CUTE-1 with deployed solar panel (source: [3])................................................................13
Figure 2: model of MOVE with deployed solar panel ......................................................................14
Figure 3: longitudinal bent strap (Source: EP-0754625-A1).............................................................14
figure 4: Flexible struts.......................................................................................................................14
Figure 5: model of Netlander (Courtesy of University of Münster)..................................................16
Figure 6: deployment mechanism incorporating a spiral spring (Source: DE-3215431-C2).............17
Figure 7: directional response with two way shape memory alloys (Source: EP0817744A1)..........18
Figure 8: CubeSat with deployed Solar array.....................................................................................19
Figure 9: Space station powered by a wind-mill shaped solar array (Source: US-2009/0283132-A1)
............................................................................................................................................................19
Figure 10: deployable boom of first described type (Courtesy of DLR)...........................................20
Figure 11: cracked boom for weight reduction (Source: [15])...........................................................20
Figure 12: deployable boom of second described type (source: DE-102004021569-A1).................20
Figure 13: inflatable booms according to DE1801777.......................................................................21
Figure 14: estimation of deployment process on CubeSat (Nihon University CubeSat program, [16])
............................................................................................................................................................21
Figure 15: inflatable solar paddle according to DE-10334352..........................................................21
Figure 16: deployed solar array at ISS (Source: NASA)...................................................................23
Figure 17: schematic sketch of the telescopic cylinder used at STS-46.............................................24
Figure 18: second describe telescopic cylinder mechanism...............................................................24
Figure 19: deployment sequence of the hear shield for BREM-SAT-2 (Source: Matthias Wiegand,
[27])....................................................................................................................................................25
Figure 20: Line guided solar panel in CUTE-1.7+APD mission.......................................................26
Figure 21: mechanism described in DE-102005004922-A1..............................................................26
Figure 22: Sketch of the synchronization by ropes described in DE-19610297-C1..........................27
Figure 23: 3-dimensional View of the mechanism described in DE-19610297-C1...........................27
Figure 24: mechanism described in US5,720,452..............................................................................29
Figure 25: mechanism using electric motor for breaking, as described in EP-0754625-A1..............29
Figure 26: damping by external controlled friction............................................................................30
Figure 27: schematic view of active liquid at different field strength (Source: NASA)....................31
Figure 28: schematic view of damper based on active liquids...........................................................31
Figure 29: Schematic sketch of the mechanism using Belleville springs...........................................32
Figure 30: latch in final position (Source: US-5,400,987).................................................................33
Figure 31: Schematic sketch of the release by thermal loosening......................................................34
Figure 32: schematic sketch of release by heat wire..........................................................................35
Figure 33: release mechanism described in the patent DE-3215432-C2............................................35
Figure 34: schematic sketch of a HOP pin pusher..............................................................................36
Figure 35: release mechanism based on shape memory alloys..........................................................36
Figure 36: sketch of mechanism described in EP-0754625-A1.........................................................37
Figure 37: schematic sketch of proposed release by decompression.................................................38
Figure 38: schematic sketch of a pyrotechnical cutter.......................................................................39
Figure 39: release sequence at the CUTE-1 mission..........................................................................39
Figure 40: schematic sketch of a magnet release mechanism............................................................40
Figure 41: cone based release mechanism..........................................................................................41
Figure 42: electric motor described in [37]........................................................................................41
Figure 43: SPSPAD system from Starsys Research Corp..................................................................43
Figure 44: mechanism based on bi-metal strips (Source: US-3,311,322)..........................................44
Figure 45: mechanism using linear displacement for articulation (Source: [40]).......................45
Figure 46: photo-diodes with shield to create forward (right part), backward and ideal ranges........49
Figure 47: Compliance to Mechanical Envelope...............................................................................60
Figure 48: complete design including attached solar panel................................................................60
Figure 49: Overview of complete mechanism without solar panel....................................................61
Figure 50: electrical layout of PCB....................................................................................................61
Figure 51: Attitude of satellite during simulation (generated using Celestia)....................................65
Figure 52: shape of the first vibration mode......................................................................................69
Figure 53: Absolute Deflection from classical vibration analysis......................................................69
Figure 54: stress from dynamic vibration study.................................................................................70
Figure 55: deflection from dynamic vibration study..........................................................................70
Figure 56: results from the thermal stress analysis of the solar panel mechanism.............................71
Figure 57: sketch of the test setup for the vibration analysis.............................................................72
List of Abbreviations
AOCS Attitude and Orbit Control System
AM0 Air Mass 0 (space solar spectrum)
ASD Acceleration Spectral Density
BOL Beginning Of Life
Cm Centimeters
Cnes Centre national d’études spatiales (Space Agency of the French Republic)
COTS Components Of The Shelve (commercially available components)
CubeSat Nano-satellite complying to CubeSat Specification
CUTE-1 Cubical TITech Engineering Satellite 1
CUTE-1.7+APD Cubical TITech Engineering Satellite 1.7 + Avalanche Photo Diode

DLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt (German Aerospace Center,
Space Agency of the Federal Republic of Germany)
EOL End Of Life
EP European Patent
ESA European Space Agency
GEVS General Environmental Verification Specification
HOP Actuators High Output Paraffin Thermal Actuators
MeV Mega electron Volts
MOVE Munich Orbital Verification Experiment (CubeSat of the Technical
University of Munich)
NASA Nation Aeronautics and Space Agency (Space Agency of the United
States of America)
Ncm Newton centimeter
Nm Newton meter
P-POD Poly - Picosatellite Orbital Deployer
PCB Printed Circuit Board
Rpm Revolutions Per Minute
SMA Shape Memory Alloys
SPSPAD Smart, Passive Solar Panel Array Drive
STS Space Transport System (usually used together with flight number)
TITech Tokyo Institute of Technology
US United States
UV Ultra Violet (radiation)
 1 Introduction
CubeSats have become a low-cost and fast alternative to bigger satellites in the recent years. For
space limited cubesat operations many components were successfully miniaturized. The
stabilization types changed from simple spin stabilization and passive stabilization using permanent
magnets to fully three-axis stabilized spacecraft. Some recent missions also validated propulsion
systems for CubeSats. Despite this significient progress, two problems remain unsolved due to the
small surface area of CubeSats. The commonly used body fixed panels produce insuffiecient energy
and similarly provide too little surface area for adequate energy dissipation. This thesis will adress
the first one. One of the possible solutions is the use of deployable structures to increase the
available surface area.
The developed design is based on a generic CubeSat mission and an orbit with an altitude of 400
kilometers and an inclination of 40 degrees during the year 2011. The satellite is assumed to be
three-axis stabilized. In order to validate the survivability of the mechanism for launch, vibration
analyses and tests have to be performed. The panels are usually in stowed position to avoid damage
during the lauch phase and are deployed later on when the satellite reaches its desired orbit.

In general, mechanisms on board of CubeSats are limited to small dimensions and are required to be
extremely light weight by the CubeSat launch containers. Further details can be found in the
CubeSat specification. [1] Working in an environment with no possibility of later corrections or
modifications requires a high functional reliability and repeatability. The two major impacts on the
satellite are the compatibility of the thermal heat expansion ratios and the large occurring
temperature changes. These result in thermally induced stresses which might cause cracks in
components or delamination of glued components like solar cells. This can be prevented by the use
of materials with a similar coefficient of thermal expansion and larger tolerances.
Beside the constraints discussed earlier, solar cells degrade during their lifetime. Therefore it is
common practice to design solar panels with a higher energy output at the beginning of the mission
to meet the requirements at the end of the mission.
Another critical issue, which will be dealt in this report, is the electric connection of the solar panel
to the satellite bus. The most common solutions in this field are cables and slip ring devices.
This report focuses on the use of deployed or articulated solar panels to generate the required
energy during the whole mission. Hence, it evaluates several options for the design of the
subsystems of a deployable or articulated solar panel for CubeSats. Afterward the final design is
described and validated by the use of computational analyses and practical testing.

1
 2 Previous Work
This chapter covers the literature review of solar arrays used in space applications. The first section
gives a brief overview of the principle solution options. Afterward currently used techniques are
evaluated to determine the most valuable direction of development. This chapter is based on a
similar chapter in the thesis [2].

2.1 Overview of the solution options

For a systematic review of existing solar array systems, the complete system of a deployable solar
array was split into several subsystems:
• Actuation mechanism for deployment (rotating and linear)
• Guiding mechanism for deployment
• Damping mechanism for deployment
• Initial release mechanism
• Actuation mechanism for articulating
• Control mechanism for articulating
• Solar cell technologies
• Solar panel materials
Solution options were generated by analysis of current solar panel systems and research in scientific
journals, patent databases and books. The options originate from satellites ranging from CubeSats to
very large satellites, like the ISS or the Hubble Space Telescope. An overview of all found and
evaluated possibilities is given in the table at the following page.

2
 Sub- Solution options
Mechanism
Actuation mechanisms
By shape Torsion spring in Spiral spring in Torsion bar
for deployment
Coil spring By flexible joints memory alloys hinge hinge Electric motor in spring in hinge Spin of satellite
rotating
hinge
Lanyard
Actuation mechanisms Deployment with
for deployment Deployable Inflatable boom / rotational Canister
linear boom structures damper Deployment

Guiding mechanisms Rotational Telescopic Mechanical Scissors shaped Synchronized by

for deployment deployment cylinder guiding Tether booms rope mechanisms Flexible joints None

Electric damping
by
Damping mechanisms Electro-rheologic Counter-force by Rubber damper
for deployment Counter-force by / magneto- Belleville at desired Latch at desired Torsion spring in
spiral spring Rotation damper Electric motor External friction Eccentric bolt rheologic fluids Friction in joints springs position position hinge

Thermal Electric motor Cone movement

Initial release loosening of Phase changes with rod Release from P- Pyrotechnic Mechanical by by magnetic
mechanisms interference fit Heat wire (HOP actuators) Shape memory mechanism POD Decompression cutter releasing key Magnetic pusher
alloys

Actuating mechanism Flat electric Piezoelectric HOP motor with Shape memory Torsion spring in Spiral spring in Torsion bar By linear Electric motor in
for articulating motor motors spiral cam alloys hinge hinge Bi-metal strips spring in hinge displacement hinge None

Clamping by
electro-rheologic
Control mechanism Changing / magneto- Photo-diodes
for articulating Electronic shadowing rheological Photo-chromatic with shield for
controller mechanically fluids lens External friction damping None

3
 2.2 Evaluation of Solution options
This section is structured into four different groups, mechanisms for deployment, release
mechanisms, mechanisms for articulation and types of solar cells.
Inside the mechanisms for deployment, the actuating mechanisms were split into two different
groups, rotating and linear. Unlike in the rotating type the linear one utilizes a main deploying
movement that is translating instead of rotating. Linear mechanisms are not considered for
articulating, as their use is very complicated compared to rotational ones. The actuation
mechanisms require an extremely high reliability, as they are first and most important single point
of failure in the complete deployment process. Therefore mechanisms shown in this chapter would
provide redundancy in the real design. Other mechanisms in this group include guidance and
damping mechanisms for the deployment process.
For articulation mechanisms, these are divided in control mechanisms and actuation mechanisms.
Both have a large impact on the reliability of the complete system. Therefore they would also
include redundancy in the real design.

2.2.1 Actuation mechanisms for deployment - rotating

2.2.1.1 Coil spring
Small springs are widely used in CubeSat applications due to volume constraints.
Coil springs were, for example, used for the satellites CUTE-1 and CUTE-1.7+APD
for the deployment of solar panels. After release the expanding spring provides an
initial velocity. Afterward, the movement of the panel is uncontrolled, as damping at
final position of the deployable solar panel cannot be achieved by the sole use of a
coil spring. The other option of using coil springs is a conversion from the linear to
the rotational movement, like a scram or winding. CUTE-1 is shown in its deployed
Figure 1: CUTE-1
state in Figure 1. An axial application is shown in the chapter about High Output
with deployed solar
Paraffin (HOP) actuators (chapter 2.2.6.3).
panel (source: [3])
Advantages Disadvantages

• Usable in axial and radial directions • Force applied rapidly just at the
beginning
• Applied torque just restricted by the
lever arm • For radial case large volume
requirements
• Flight approved mechanism
• Needs guiding when reused
• Reusable when panel retracted
(otherwise prone to buckling)
• Can partially placed inside of the
• Doesn't lock panel in end
satellite
position
• Can be easily combined with other
• Limited to rigid solar panels
methods
• When incorporated with SMA
• Can be incorporated with Shape
constantly power required
Memory Alloys (SMA)
Conclusion:
Coil springs are promising due to their large space heritage. Itself used in radial direction are not
sufficient for the current application, as they only provide an unchangeable initial speed. However,

4
they can be valuable as an addition to another solution option for actuation.
For the use in axial like direction they are a good approach, because they can be easily actuated and
locked by the incorporation of SMA materials and require little volume.

2.2.1.2 Flexible joints (includes flexible struts)

Flexible joints are widely used in space systems for deployment and
locking. One example is the CubeSat of the Technical University of
München MOVE, which includes two deployable solar panels attached
by flexible joints which consist of four crossed flexible straps. (see
Figure 2) These provide guidance and actuation energy for the
deployment process in a volume-efficient way. After reaching the final
position the movement is damped solely by friction inside the flexible
joints. The estimated minimum bending radius is 4 millimeters, as the
CubeSat specification (see [1]) gives a maximum height of 6.5 Figure 2: model of MOVE
millimeters above the upper panel minus 1 millimeter for the panel and with deployed solar panel
minus 1 millimeter for the screws to attach the stripes at the satellite bus.
In order to improve the performance of the straps, it is
suggested in patent EP-0754625-A1 (see [4]) to bend the
straps in longitudinal direction, as shown in Figure 3. The
earlier mentioned problem of a weak damping can be
improved by the application of viscous-elastic material to
Figure 3: longitudinal bent strap both sides. (see [5]). Another type is described in the patent
(Source: EP-0754625-A1) US3,386,128, where three strips are used, while one is bent
in the opposite direction of the two others.(see [6])
Band springs are also used in the frictionless hinges ADELE from Thales Alenia Space (see [7]).
The second type in this section, flexible struts, is used in the Spartan lite mission. (see [8]) These
act as actuation mechanism after the solar panels were already partially deployed to an angle of 45
degrees. They also lock the panel in the final position, as shown in Figure .

figure 4: Flexible struts

5
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Locks panel in final position • Difficult to retract (locking)

• Small required volume (as • Angle just adjustable by rotation
actuation device) of band
• Also acts as hinge • Difficult to damp at end position
(multifunctional)
• Limited to rigid solar panels
• Simple harnessing
• High reliability (small number of
mechanical parts)
• Small deployment torque (→
relatively low deployment speeds,
see page 4 in [9])
• Utilization of bi-metallic bands
enables articulation (see chapter
2.3.7.7)
Conclusion:
Flexible joints are widely used and offer promising opportunities for the use in articulation
mechanisms by the incorporation of SMA or bi-metallic bands. Furthermore the volume
consumption is very small. Therefore they will be considered for further research. In order to
prevent damage from the instruments, the mentioned vibrations at the end of the deployment
process should be more effectively damped.

2.2.1.3 Shape Memory Alloys (SMA)

Mechanisms based on SMA alloys are used in various branches, like aerospace industry or
medicine. Shape Memory Alloys make use of the so-called memory effect. This effect can be
divided into two different types, one-way and two-way shape-memory effect. While the one-way
effect offers the possibility for only one actuation, the two-way effect can be used for cyclic
actuation. The achieved deformations are typically one or more orders of magnitude higher than the
deformation resulting from conventional material behavior such as thermal expansion. SMA
undergo phase transformations which enable them to memorize a particular shape. The first phase
transformation converts austenite, which has a cubic crystal model, in the temperature range
between the start martensitic temperature and the finish martensitic temperature to martensite,
which has a tetragonal crystal model. This happens while cooling down the austenite. In the absence
of loads the resulting martensite is twinned, i. e. no changes in shape occurs. Otherwise the
martensite is detwinned. When the material is heated up again above the austenitic start temperature
the back transformation starts. It finishes when reaching the finish austenitic temperature. In this
state the original geometric shape will be recovered unless a load is still applied. Otherwise the
shape will partially recover.
A similar effect occurs when the component temperature is above the austenite finish temperature
and a load is applied. There are also comparable stress levels to temperatures, like austenite start
stress. This effect is called pseudo-elastic effect.
The two-way shape memory effect results from specific training of a material along a repeated
stress-strain-temperature path. This leads to a changed hysteretic response of the material. The
training has to be continued until the hysteresis fits the desired one.

6
Depending on the size of the deformation, i. e. whether it stays within the elastic region, the fatigue
life can reach up to 107 cycles. Otherwise the number of cycles might decrease to several thousands.
(see [9])
Shape Memory alloys can be incorporated with four different kinds of actuation mechanisms:
• Coil spring
• Torsion spring
• Flexible joints
• Spiral spring
• Torsion bar spring
As the major advantages and disadvantages are discussed in the specific sections, the mentioned
pros and cons are specifically for mechanisms based on shape memory alloys.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Can be used for retracting (coil • Training for retracting required

spring just axial case)
• Perhaps external trigger required
• High work per volume ratio
• Just two positions depending on
• Existing small mechanisms in the possible actuation frequency
other fields available (partially)
• Risk of forgetfulness when stowed
• Ability of articulation in different position for long time
(training)
• complicated design process
Conclusion:
Shape memory based mechanisms offer a very good volume and mass to energy ratio. As they can
also utilized for articulating purposes they will be considered in the further research.

2.2.1.4 Torsion springs

Torsion springs are typical component for hinges. They were also
considered as deployment mechanism for the proposed Netlander
mission of CNES and ESA.
Another specific mechanism utilizing torsion springs is described in
the book [10]. The movement induced by the spring is damped by a
counter-acting pack of Belleville springs.
In the US Patent 5,720,452 the damping is, however, realized by a
conventional rotation damper. Figure 5: model of Netlander
(Courtesy of University of
Münster)

7
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Can be incorporated with SMA • Too low mechanical strength to act

as hinge
• Can be easily incorporated with
damping mechanisms • Small torques possible
• Large space heritage • Small force remaining at end of
deployment
• Direction torque transfer
• Undefined final position
• Small radial size
• Deceleration close to final position
• Linear characteristic
Conclusion:
When combined with hinges, torsion springs offer a reliable and volume-efficient deployment
mechanism. As they can also be used for articulation they are considered in the further research.

2.2.1.5 Spiral Spring

Spiral springs were proposed for driving the solar panel
deployment in many patents, like DE-3215431-C2, as shown in
Figure 6.
In other applications, like in the Netlander mission, they were
proposed as backup mechanism for electric motors to open the
outer shell of the spacecraft. Due to their little torque they would
not have been able to open the shell in an upside-down position,
i. e. in an unexpected landing situation. [10]
Another patent, DE-3240327-C2, uses spiral spring shaped
wiring as a supporting actuation mechanisms. Moreover, this Figure 6: deployment mechanism
approach reduces the stress induced in the cables. incorporating a spiral spring
Advantages Disadvantages (Source: DE-3215431-C2)

• Can be incorporated with SMA • Too weak to act as hinge

• Can be incorporated with bi- • Small torques possible
metallic band
• Large volume required (due to
• Provides torque directly radial winding)
• Decelerates close to final position • Undefined final position without
additional latch mechanism
• Can be easily incorporated with
damping mechanisms • Difficult to mount at panel
• Linear characteristic

Conclusion:
Despite the fact the advantages of the system, the volume consumption is too high to consider this
option for an application on CubeSats.

8
2.2.1.6 Electric motor
Rotational electric motors are used when a deployment requires high torques, high precision or
highly flexible deployment schemes. The first case, however, requires the use of a gearing to
transform the usually high revolutions per minute to the desired torque. This could be done space-
efficient either by a planetary gearing or a rope based gearing. [10] Linear motors, like the squiggle
motor, can on the other hand offer some of the mentioned features also within a very small volume.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Retractable • Additional energy required

• Complex deployment schemes • Requires additional control circuit
possible (also articulating)
• Requires large volume
• High precision
• Likely to require gears (rotational
• Can be locked in position by detent type only)
torque
• Requires additional transmission
• No release mechanism required to rotational movement (linear
type only)
• Large torques achievable
• Difficult to mount at panel (linear
type only)

Conclusion:
Most rotational electric motors are too big for an application on
board of CubeSats. The linear type fits the required dimensions,
but will not be considered here, as it is difficult to mount at the
panel.

2.2.1.7 Torsion bar spring

Torsion bar springs are a volume-efficient mechanism which can
be incorporated with shape memory alloys. One example for this
combination is given in the patent EP-0817744-B1 (see [11]).
While one of the ends is attached to the panel, the other one is
fixed at the satellite body. The shape memory material described
uses the two-way memory effect. In order to achieve a directional
response, the Sun radiation is blocked from an angle larger than
 max . Thus, the torsion bar spring cools down and returns to
the cold state. Within the interval between  min and  max the Figure 7: directional response
torsion bar spring is heated up and changes to the hot state. with two way shape memory
alloys (Source: EP0817744A1)

9
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Can be incorporated with SMA • Small force remaining at end of

deployment
• Very volume efficient
• Undefined final position
• Can be used for articulating
• High manufacturing efforts
• Provides torque directly
• Limited capability for shear forces
• High stresses in material
• Suitable for rigid arrays only
Conclusion:
As torsion bar springs are very volume-efficient and can be used together with SMA, they will be
considered in the further research.

2.2.1.8 Spin of Satellite

The use of the spin of the satellite for the deployment of solar
arrays was suggested in [12]. (see Figure 8) As many satellites
are spin-stabilized during the deployment from the launch
vehicle, this type of deploying solar arrays can be used to
reduce the spinning rate. Investigations in the same paper
showed that the ideal deploying rotational speed is 20 rpm for
deployment and 5 rpm for stiffening the solar panel. In order to
Figure 8: CubeSat with deployed
shift to a non-spinning state later additional measures have to
Solar array
be taken to introduce stiffness to the deployed thin film solar
array.
Another interesting application of this type can be found in the patent US-2009/0283132-A1. This
type is rather intended for large satellites or space stations. Figure 9 shows its usage at a space
station. The depicted cylinders represent the modules. In operating state the wind-mill shaped solar
array is kept in a continuous rotation.

Figure 9: Space station powered by

a wind-mill shaped solar array
(Source: US-2009/0283132-A1)

10
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Large area arrays possible • Spin stabilized satellite required

• Can be used for de-spinning of • Suitable for thin film solar cells
satellite only
• No external energy required • No control of orientation of array
after deployment
• Unknown impact on AOCS
subsystem
• No space heritage
Conclusion:
As the proposed mission on which this work is based on is nadir pointing this mechanism cannot be
used.

2.2.2 Actuation mechanisms for deployment – linear

2.2.2.1 Deployable boom
Mechanisms similar to this have a long space heritage. They
were already used during the later Apollo missions 15 and
16. Deployable booms can be classified into two different
categories, pre-assembled and on-orbit-assembled. The first
one was described in the paper [13] by the German
Aerospace Center (DLR) for the deployment of a large solar Figure 10: deployable boom of first
sail. In this case the deployable boom is manufactured in described type (Courtesy of DLR)
two parts, which are attached to each other. The whole boom
is wound on rolls in order to save volume. On orbit it is unreeled again and regains its structural
stiffness. The principle is shown in Figure 10.
The second type was, for example, used for the first solar
array of the Hubble Space Telescope. It stored the two
halves of the boom on separate rolls and glued them
together while deploying. A similar mechanism is depicted
in Figure 12. It differs by the power source of the unfolding
process. While in the earlier one the rolls are directly driven
by electric motors, in
Figure 11: cracked boom for weight the later one the
reduction (Source: [15]) movement is
transferred by a gearing like edge of the deployable boom. (see
[14] and Figure 12) The second approach prevents the creation
of cracks which can occur during the folding of booms of the
first type. Parts of the boom are removed in order to save
weight. (see [15] and Figure 11)

Figure 12: deployable boom of

second described type (source: DE-
102004021569-A1)

11
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Suitable for large solar arrays • Complexity → reliability issues

(miniaturization)
• Large space heritage
• Not retractable (on-orbit
• Volume efficient in stowed
assembled type only)
position
• Additional power required for
• Full stiffness during deployment
deployment
• Includes solution for guidance
• Difficult to use with articulation
• Danger of cracks when wound
Conclusion:
The mechanism is very useful for large solar arrays. However, as the solar arrays developed in this
work have smaller dimensions, it cannot be used. For future applications in big solar arrays it might
become considerable after further miniaturization.

2.2.2.2 Inflatable booms

Inflatable structures are an important issue in future space applications. For
example, the Genesis modules of Bigelow Aerospace are launched in a
compressed state and inflated when finally reaching their orbital position.
In particular, inflatable booms are also often suggested for the deployment of
solar cells. These are usually manufactured by the thin film technique to
minimize volume and mass. One application is described in the patents
DE10334352 and DE1801777. Figure 13 shows the mechanism according to
the later one. The mechanism combines the usual hinge-spring mechanism Figure 13: inflatable
for the deployment in the first direction (in the booms according to
figure top – down) with inflatable booms (7) DE1801777
in the perpendicular direction. In order to make the booms more
flexible during the deployment they are soaked with glycol which
evaporates later on and stiffens them. A higher stiffness in the
perpendicular direction is achieved by additional inflatable sections
(10).
A similar approach without additional
stiffening inside the solar panel is suggested in
the patent DE-10334352. It is shown in Figure
.
Apart from applications in big satellites
inflatable structures were also proposed for
Figure 14: estimation of
the use on-board of CubeSats by the Nihon Figure 15: inflatable
deployment process on solar paddle
University. (see [16]) However, the first
CubeSat (Nihon University according to DE-
satellite to be flown was destroyed by the
CubeSat program, [16]) 10334352
disassembling launch vehicle. The second
satellite which was actually launched did not include this experiment. The expected deploying
process is depicted in [16] and shown in Figure 14.

12
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Large solar arrays possible • Gas tank required for deployment

• Volume-efficient in stowed • Difficult to use with articulation
position
• Suitable for thin film solar arrays
• Small number of mechanical parts only
• No space heritage
• Unpredictable deployment
behavior
• Prone to pressure loss by MMOD
environment impacts
• May violate CubeSat specification
• For full stiffness after pressure
loss rigidifing necessary

2.2.2.3 Lanyard Deployment

This method uses the deformation work saved during the storage of the boom for its deployment.
During the deploying process the outer end of the boom rotates. Unlike other methods, the full
stiffness of the boom is not reached until deploying process finishes. Because of this weakness
during deploying the mechanism in the current size is only usable for booms with a length of up to
3 meters. The name of the mechanism is derived from the lanyard in the middle of the boom. This
rope is used to control the deploying speed by an electric motor or rotation damper. A motor even
offers the opportunity to retract the solar array. Compared to the Canister Deployment this method
requires less volume while no external energy source is required. Figure Fehler: Referenz nicht
gefunden shows a schematic graph of the mechanism. [17] [18]
Advantages Disadvantages

• Large solar arrays possible • Suitable in current size for small length
only (up to 3 m)
• Volume efficient in matters of
length in stowed position (just 2% • Tip rotates during deployment
of deployed length [19])
• Full stiffness at the end of deployment
• No additional energy required
• Damping device required to control
• Large space heritage deployment speed
• Includes solution for guidance • No miniaturized types available
• Over-sized for required solar array areas
• Difficult to incorporate with articulation

Conclusion:
Despite its advantages the method is not recommended for further research as it is to oversized for
the current application and not compatible with simple articulation methods.

13
2.2.2.4 Canister Deployment
In contrast to the last mentioned method the outer end of the boom remains stationary, while the
inner end is turned by an electric motor, which also allows retraction of the deployed solar array.
The part outside the canister has its full stiffness at any time of the deploying sequence. This is
achieved by the use of a transition region in which the boom converts to its final geometry. The
Canister Deployment method can be used for the largest structures in space, like the 100 meter long
solar arrays of the ISS. [19] When dealing with
this large length, thermal expansion puts
constraints on the stability of the boom.
Therefore it is advisable to deploy in several
steps with breaks in between, e. g. like done
during the installation of a solar array on the ISS
in the STS-117 mission. [20]

Figure 16: deployed solar array at ISS (Source:

Advantages Disadvantages
NASA)
• Large solar arrays possible • Large in matters of length in
stowed position (6 % of final
• Large space heritage
length [19])
• Full stiffness any time during
• Actuator required
deploying process
• No miniaturized types available
• Tip fixed during deployment
process • Oversize for required solar array
areas
• Good control of deployment
process by electric motor
• Includes solution for guidance
Conclusion:
Despite its advantages the method is not recommended for further research as it is to oversized for
the current application and not compatible with simple articulation methods.Guiding mechanisms
for deployment

2.2.3 Guiding mechanisms for deployment

2.2.3.1 Rotating deployment
The rotating deployment as covered in this section was part of the Space Technology 8 program of
NASA. It was also proposed for the Orion spacecraft. The deploying sequence will be explained in
the following paragraph. After the launch tie-down is released the package of solar cells flaps 90
degrees away from the spacecraft. The array is then deployed by a motor driven lanyard which is
attached to the pivot panel and reeled onto the motor pulley. This is continued until the pivot panel
reaches close to its final position at 360 degrees. Then a spring preloaded system tightens the solar
array and latches it in the desired position. [22]

14
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Low volume requirements in • Complex deployment process

stowed position
• Electric motor required
• High power per mass ratio
• Introduction of additional torques
• Can be used for articulation to spacecraft
• Suitable for rigid and thin film • High absolute volume
solar cells requirements

Conclusion:
Even though the technique offers a very high power to mass ratio and can be articulated, it would
consume too much volume and introduces unknown torques to a CubeSat with limited attitude
control abilities. Therefore it is not considered in this work any longer.

2.2.3.2 Telescopic Cylinder

This method was applied during a tethered-satellite experiment during the Space Shuttle mission
STS 46. [23] During this test the satellite was deployed to a distance of 256 meters. It utilized a
telescopic cylinder consisting of seven different single cylinders with a diameter between 50 and
120 millimeters and a length of 400 millimeters. The deployment of all cylinders was performed
simultaneously. While the largest one was moved by an electric powered spindle drive, the smaller
ones were pulled by a rope mechanism. [24] A simplified version taken from [25] is shown in
Figure 17.
Another possible actuating mechanism is the usage of a wound band. This is also driven by a motor
and pushes the different cylinders in their desired position. (see [26] and Figure 18)

Figure 18: second describe Figure 17: schematic sketch of the telescopic
telescopic cylinder cylinder used at STS-46
mechanism

15
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Good and precise guidance of • Too large volume requirements in

deploying process axial direction for CubeSats
• Can be also used as actuating • Difficult to combine with
mechanism articulation
• Retractable
• Suitable for rigid and thin film
solar cells
Conclusion:
The advantages mentioned in this section are not important in CubeSat
applications. As this method is also difficult to combine with an
articulating mechanism, it is not further considered.

2.2.3.3 Mechanical Guiding

Mechanical guiding is widely used in terrestrial applications. Figure 19
shows a mechanism planned for BREM-SAT-2 for deploying the heat
shield of the re-entry capsule. [27] It uses a spindle drive to rotate the
intermediate part. With some modifications it can be also used for
deploying solar panels. Furthermore it can stop the deployment
mechanism at any time, i. e. it can be also used for articulation. The
deployment sequence is shown in Figure 19.

Figure 19: deployment

sequence of the hear shield
Advantages Disadvantages for BREM-SAT-2 (Source:
Matthias Wiegand, [27])
• Good precise guidance • Many components required
• Includes damping at the end of • Suitable for one panel only
deployment process
• Lubrication difficult
• Retractable
• Danger of cold welding
• Includes articulation mechanism
• Suitable for rigid solar cells only
• Process very predictable
Conclusion:
Even though the mechanism is very compact, it would be difficult to fit within six millimeters. At
the current state the increase of area is not important enough to justify the high complexity of the
mechanism. In case of insufficient solar array area in the design phase it should be considered
again.

16
2.2.3.4 Tether
The CubeSat CUTE-1.7+APD of the Tokyo Institute of Technology used a 0.1
millimeter thick and 10 meters long wire to control the ejection of a solar panel.
This was however not meant for energy production but an increase of the
atmospheric friction of the satellite to increase its orbital descend rate. The panel
was accelerated by the coil springs at the bottom of the satellite. Due to the low
speed of 30 centimeters per second the damping could be neglected. [28] Figure
20 taken from [28] shows the solar panel in the deployed state.
Another application were the already mentioned tether satellite experiments
during the Space Shuttle missions STS-46 and STS-75. The aim of these
experiments was basic research on tethered satellites. In case of a sufficiently long
wire it could be also used as an additional energy source. A voltage is induced in Figure 20: Line guided
the cable, as the orbital movement is a movement relative to the magnetic field of solar panel in CUTE-
the Earth. [29] [30] However, the author does not know of any successful test in 1.7+APD mission
orbit.
Tether based mechanism are also used in other mechanisms like the earlier described lanyard
deployment mechanism.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Volume and mass efficient solution • Inaccurate guidance

• Large distances from satellite • No damping possible
possible
• Prone to shear forces
• Use as additional power source
• No articulation possible
possible
• Enhances atmospheric friction
• Suitable for rigid solar cells only

Conclusion:
As the panel and its attitude cannot be controlled after deployment this mechanism is not useful in
this project. However, it would be interesting to test tether generated power supply.

2.2.3.5 Scissors shaped booms

The mechanism discussed in this section is considering initially just thin film solar
panels. The mechanism from patent DE-102005004922-A1 is similar to devices
used for the deployment of blinds. In the current example, a rope is attached to the
bar furthermost from the satellite. This is lead via rolls which are fixed at the
joints. An electric motor at the satellite drives a roll to reel up the rope. This is
done symmetrically at both edges of the solar panel.
With some modifications the described mechanism could be also used for rigid
solar panels.
Figure 21:
mechanism
described in DE-
102005004922-
A1

17
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple harnessing • Only suitable for thin film solar

cells
• Maximum distance limited to the
length of the booms (rather short)
• No retraction possible
• Not suitable for articulation
• Large volume and mass
requirements
Conclusion:
As the mechanism requires too much volume, it is not considered for this project.

2.2.3.6 Synchronization by rope mechanisms

Patent DE-19610297-C1 describes a mechanism that utilizes a traction
drive. This is disconnected at the end of the deployment process. The
orientation of the solar panel can then be adjusted by a motor attached to
the shaft of the hinge. Attitude adjustments can also be transferred to other
panels using the traction drive. The final
position can be arbitrary defined by the
position of the groove. The complete
deployment process is depicted in Figure 22
and described in the next paragraph.
In the original position (see Figure 22a) the
bolt (8) is pressed by a not shown torsion
Figure 23: 3-dimensional spring attached to the bolt (6) to the surface
Figure 22: Sketch of
View of the mechanism of the cam disc (9a). As the bolt is within
the synchronization by
described in DE-19610297-C1 the dashed drawn groove, it is deployed by
ropes described in DE-
the roll (11a) via the rope (13). (see Figure 22b) When reaching the final
19610297-C1
position the bolt is pressed through the slit (10a) into the groove (12a).
This has the same dimension as groove (12). As the bolt (8) is not lead by the roll (11a) any more,
the hinge is decoupled from the traction drive. In this condition orientation of the hinge can be
adjusted by a motor within the limits given by the groove (12a). A 3-dimensional sketch of the
mechanism is shown in Figure 23.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Can be incorporated with • Many components required

mechanism for articulation
• Large volume requirements
• Useful for large solar arrays
• Tautness changes with temperature
• Locked in final position
• Cannot be retracted
• Good guidance of deployment
• Articulation angle limited
process

18
Conclusion:
The mechanism is useful for large solar arrays. As this project, however, is aimed on very small
satellites, CubeSats, it is not considered any further.

2.2.3.7 Flexible Joints

Flexible joints offer actuation energy, as well guiding during deployment. Also in case of guiding
they are a very volume-efficient method. Further discussion can be found in chapter 2.2.1.2.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Small volume requirements • Difficult to retract (locking)

• Includes actuator • Angle just adjustable by rotation
of band
• Locks in 180 degrees position
• Difficult to damp at end position
• Articulation by incorporation of
bi-metals or SMA possible • Limited to rigid solar panels
Conclusion:
Flexible joints are widely used and offer promising opportunities for the use in articulation
mechanisms by the incorporation of SMA or bi-metallic bands. Furthermore the volume
consumption for this function is very small. Therefore they will be considered for further research.
In order to prevent damage from the instruments, the mentioned vibrations at the end of the
deployment process should be more effectively damped.

2.2.4 Damping mechanisms for deployment

2.2.4.1 Spiral Spring
The patent DE-3240327-C2 describes a device which is similar to a spiral spring, as already
mentioned in chapter 2.2.1.5. In addition to the discussed additional actuation energy, it is suggested
to use the spring to decelerate the panel at the end of the movement. This can reduce the vibrations
when reaching the final position. However, the damping is just a minor side effect named in the
patent. The major advantage is to reduce the stress due to thermal expansion put onto the supply
lines of the solar panels.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Smooth damping by continuously • Large volume consumption

increasing deceleration
• Difficult to mount at panel
• Final position defined by design of
• Rather deceleration than damping
spring
• Suitable for low speed due to low
• No external energy required
achievable torques only
• Better fatigue behavior of the
supply lines
Conclusion:
As the design developed in this thesis might put many cycles at the supply lines, this mechanism
should be considered to reduce the risk of breaking the wiring. The side effect may also help for the
use of articulation.

19
2.2.4.2 Rotation damper
The only rotation dampers appropriate for space are according to an
inquiry to ACE Stoßdämpfer GmbH those one based on friction. In the
US patent 5,720,452 (see Figure 29), however, dampers utilizing viscous
fluids are suggested. The basic principle for damping is to press the
damping liquid through a throttle by turning the damper. By adjusting
the viscosity of the liquid and the size of the throttle the damping torque
can be varied in an interval between 0.05 Ncm and 40 Nm. The damper
Figure 24: mechanism
can be either attached directly, as shown in Figure 24, or via a gear
described in US5,720,452
wheel. [31] A special type of damping liquid is described in section
.
As already mentioned earlier rotation dampers are also used to control the deployment speed of the
lanyard based boom mechanisms.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple design process • Danger of leakages in vacuum

• Damping widely controllable • Large volume consumption
• No external energy required
• COTS possible
Conclusion:
Current rotation dampers are too big for the use in CubeSats. As they also interfere with the aim of
articulated panels, they are excluded from the further research.

2.2.4.3 Electric Motor

The patent EP-0754625-A1describes the use of electric
motors for the deceleration of spring actuated and rope
synchronized deployment mechanisms. It is also depicted in
Figure 25. In this process the panels 56 and 44 are attached
by a traction drive to the electric motor. This can influence
the deployment velocity by changing the applied torque.
Another possible application is the earlier mentioned lanyard
based mechanism where the electric motor can be also used
to change the deployment speed.

Figure 25: mechanism using electric

motor for breaking, as described in
EP-0754625-A1

20
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Very good control • Additional power consumption

• High deployment process • Mechanism requires large volume
flexibility
• Heat expansion problems when
used with rope mechanisms
• Requires additional control circuit
• Likely to require gears (rotational
type only)
Conclusion:
The suggested mechanisms based on electric motors are too
big for an application on board of CubeSats. Therefore they
are excluded from the further research.

2.2.4.4 External Friction Wall of

satellite
Solar
panel

This method uses friction at the outer faces of the hinge to

damp the deploying movement. The rate and the start of the
damping can be arbitrary adjusted by using a specific profile
for the outer faces. With a known friction coefficient the final
angle can be defined by changing the force normal to the
surface of the hinge. A design based on this principle was F F
described in [2]. Despite the simplicity of the solution it
inherits a high risk of failure as the prediction of friction relies hinge
„braking blocks“
on experiments and the friction coefficients might change with End of shafts
fixed at panel
time due to degradation in orbit. In the mentioned paper,
however, it was still feasible, as the deployment was planned Figure 26: damping by external
to be in a very early mission phase. controlled friction

Advantages Disadvantages

• Final position adjustable after • High risk for mission success

manufacturing
• Danger of cold welding
• Small volume required
• Friction difficult to predict

Conclusion:
Due to the functional risk which is even increased for an articulated design the solution option is not
considered in this project.

2.2.4.5 Eccentric bolt

The idea behind this mechanism is to modify the outer end of the shaft to rub against a plain surface
at the satellite bus. As a side effect the end might get stuck and slightly locks the panel in its final
position. Different decelerations and final positions can be obtained by adjusting the shape of the
eccentric bolt.

21
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Small volume required • No space heritage

• High reliability • Eccentric bolt prone to breaking
• Locking in final position possible • Final position inaccurately defined
• Difficult to unlock
Conclusion:
As this option is a one-shot mechanism it cannot be used in this project which requires the hinge not
to lock permanently in a final position at all.

2.2.4.6 Electric damping by electro-rheologic /

magneto-rheologic fluids
Dynamic perturbations of any kind can be damped by the use of active materials, like
electro-rheologic or magneto-rheologic fluids. The damping coefficient can be
adjusted by changing the electric or magnet field strength
between the base viscosity of the liquid and an almost
fixed connection. An increase in field strength will result
in a higher damping rate. In case of a deployable or
articulable solar panel this gives the chance for arbitrary
deployment and articulation processes. Figure 27 taken Figure 27:
schematic
from [32] shows a schematic view of the liquid at
view of active
different electric field strengths.
liquid at
A device based on this technique might consist of two different field
Figure 28: schematic view unconnected co-axial cylinders. The gap in between is
strength
of damper based on active filled by the electro-rheologic / magneto-rheologic fluid.
(Source:
liquids (see Figure 28) NASA)
Advantages Disadvantages

• Damping rate flexible adjustable • Function endangered by leakages

• Small volume required • Additional electric energy required
• Can be locked in final position • Strong electric fields required
• Danger for electronic components
inside satellite
• Perturbations of electric or
magnetic field sensors
Conclusion:
As the system adds large perturbations on the electronics on board of CubeSats and the risk of
leakage the mechanism is not considered any further.

2.2.4.7 Friction in joints

This solution relies on the damping created by friction at the contacts between the hinges, the
bearings and the used actuation mechanism. As this effect is very small compared to other damping

22
solutions the vibrations transferred from the solar panel to the satellite bus are comparably large.
This can be only ignored in missions where no sensitive instruments prone to vibrations are on
board of the spacecraft. One example for the application of this method is the proposed MOVE
mission of the Technical University München.
Advantages Disadvantages

• No additional components • Unpredictable

necessary
• Small damping efficiency
• No additional energy required
• Still strong oscillations
at end of deployment (→ another
damping mechanism required)
Conclusion:
The solar array to be designed should be suitable for a wide range of mission profiles. As this is
impossible to achieve with large vibrations at the end of a deployment process, this solution option
is not considered any further.

2.2.4.8 Counter-force by Belleville springs

The solution described in [10] uses Belleville springs to damp the deployment
movement. These are located around the shaft in the middle of the joint. While
turning the hinge the pack of Belleville springs is compressed. Therefore the
panel is decelerated at the end of the deployment.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Proved mechanism • Too large volume for

application in
• Small volume required
CubeSats
• Continuous deceleration
• Many components
• Final position roughly defined involved
Figure 29: Schematic sketch
• Complex mechanism of the mechanism using
(→ higher risk) Belleville springs
• Risk of cold welding
• Uncertainties due to friction
between outer and inner ferrule
Conclusion:
As the mechanism cannot be adjusted during usage, it is not suitable for articulating solar arrays.
Therefore it is not considered any further.

2.2.4.9 Rubber damper at desired position

In combination with an actuator which can still apply torques at the end of the deployment process a
rubber plate can damp the vibrations in a simple and fast way. However, the author does not know
of any space heritage of the method.

23
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple to implement • No space heritage

• Small volume required • No locking in final position
• Final position determined by • Danger of outgasing
position of damper
• Short way of deceleration
Conclusion:
As the mechanism can be only designed for a fixed final position, it is not suitable for articulated
solar panel and will be excluded from the further research.

2.2.4.10 Latch at desired position

US patent 5,400,987 describes a latching mechanism for deployable
solar arrays on board of spacecrafts. When locking in the final
position the panel can only move in a small range decreasing the
amplitude of the occurring oscillations. A further reduction could be
achieved by coating the impacting surfaces with an elastic material.
By adjusting the size of the part 16 in Figure 30 the final angle can be
varied in a range between 80 and 100 degrees.
Figure 30: latch in final position
Advantages Disadvantages
(Source: US-5,400,987)
• Final position defined • Difficult to unlock
• Locking in final positions • Puts constraints on articulation
• Can be unlocked • Many components
• Large volume required
Conclusion:
As the deployment angle is predefined and the angular range is too small, articulating solar arrays
would be very difficult to realize with this solution. Therefore it is not considered any further within
this paper.

2.2.4.11 Torsion spring in hinge

Similar to the damping by a spiral spring, as discussed in section 2.2.4.1, torsion springs could be
also used for the deceleration of deploying solar panels. However, they offer the same function in a
comparable small volume. A more detailed description about the use of torsion springs in hinges can
be found in chapter 2.2.1.4.

24
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Smooth deceleration • Small damping torques possible

• Final position determined by • Does not lock in final position
design of spring
• Little volume required
• Simple to mount
• Linear characteristic
• Can be incorporated with SMA
Conclusion:
Torsion springs might be useful for damping an actuation driven by shape memory alloys. However,
as they cannot be adjusted to different distinct angles they are not considered any further within this

project.

2.2.5 Initial Release Mechanism

Due to limited space in launch vehicle, large structures in space systems
can not be launched in their deployed state. As these are locked in their
stowed position and oftenmission critical it is necessary to release them
very reliably and at a specific time. The following chapter describes
solution options shown in chapter 2.1.

2.2.5.1 Thermal Methods

Thermal methods utilize environmentally or by actuators changed
temperatures for the release of the deployable solar panels.
The following section describes the methods evaluated in this thesis.

2.2.5.1.1 Thermal loosening of interference fit

The mechanism described in this section consists of a pin and a
corresponding ferrule. This is shrunk on the pin. Afterward both are
mounted with the satellite bus and the deployable solar panel respectively.
Due to different coefficients of thermal expansion of the materials the
temperature change resulting from the space environment causes the
original press fit to get loosen. As the process depends on the surrounding
conditions the time of deployment can be only roughly estimated. A
possible material pairing could be steel for the ferrule and aluminum for the Figure 31: Schematic
bolt. This assumes that the mechanism will be cooled down after entering sketch of the release by
the desired orbit. thermal loosening

25
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Reusable • Time of deployment not exactly

defined
• Passive method
• Risk of unexpected temperature
• Small number of components
changes
• Volume efficient
• No space heritage
Conclusion:
As this mechanism cannot offer a predefined deployment time and the reuse requires high efforts, it
is not considered further for this project.

2.2.5.1.2 Heat wire

The mechanism is based on the fact that the tensile strength of a wire
decreases when heated up until it melts. When the deployment force
reaches the ultimate strength of the wire it is ruptured by the force
resulting from the deployment mechanism.
The CubeSat CUTE-1 of the Tokyo Institute of Technology utilized
a simple wire which was melted via a heat winding. Afterward the Figure 32: schematic sketch of
antennas of the satellite were deployed. [3] Figure 32 shows a release by heat wire
schematic sketch of the release process.
Another application mentioned in the patent DE-3215432-C2, however, is more complicated. In this
solution the panels are held by spring driven hook (8). This is fixed by the wire (10). After cutting
this the hook is released and starts the deployment sequence.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Very large space heritage • Danger of contamination

• Simple mechanism • Danger of creation of space debris
• Suitable for more than one • Additional energy required
deployable
• Time of deployment good
controllable
• High reliability
• Little vibrations created
Figure 33: release
Conclusion: mechanism described in
the patent DE-3215432-C2
As this method is very simple and reliable, it is considered for further
investigation within this project.

26
2.2.5.1.3 Phase Changes (HOP actuators)
This mechanism utilizes the big volume changes during phase changes of
materials. Figure 34 shows a pin puller based on this principle. In the
original state the two chambers of the cylinder are filled by solid paraffin
and the counteracting spring. By heating up the paraffin above its melting
temperature, its volume increases and moves the piston. The mechanism can
be reused after the solidification of the paraffin. Similar to other thermal
methods, the time period between command and release is rather large. [10]
Advantages Disadvantages

• Little vibrations created • High energy

consumption [21]
• High cutting force available
• Large volume
• Large space heritage
required
• Reusable
• Large mass
• Hardware can be handled easily required

Figure 34: schematic sketch of

Conclusion: a HOP pin pusher
Even though a pin is a very reliable and reusable device, it is not considered for the project as its
power and volume consumption is too high.

2.2.5.1.4 Shape memory alloys devices

Release mechanisms based on SMA are widely proposed, such as in [33] or [34]. This
section will focus on the most promising solution from the later one. (see Figure 35) It
consists of three strips made of SMA which lock the release plunger in the initial
position. These change their shape when heated up and release the plunger. The heating
can be achieved either by external resistive heaters or direct heating while the latter
one offers a shorter release time. In case of installing both solutions the mechanism is
very reliable as it has a mechanical and electrical redundancy. The mechanical
redundancy is given by the fact that it is sufficient for release to achieve a shape
change at only two of the three stripes. Figure 35: release
mechanism based
Advantages Disadvantages on shape memory
alloys
• Very easy reusable • Additional energy required
• High reliability • Danger of too early release by
strong vibrations
• Simple mechanism
• Time of release good
controllable

Conclusion:
Even though the solution option is not as simple as the heat wire, it should be considered as a
backup solution for cases where heat wires cannot be applied.

27
2.2.5.2 Mechanical solutions
2.2.5.2.1 Electric motor with rod mechanism
In this in patent EP-0754625-A1 described mechanism the brace (150)
locking the panel is kept by a rope (156) in the stowed position. In order
to release the solar panel a stepper motor (136) turns the cable winch.
Thus, the rope slips of the open roll (154). This releases the brace which
unblocks the solar panel for deployment by the mentioned springs (152).

Advantages Disadvantages

• High reliability • Additional

energy required
• Good control of release
process • High mass
Figure 36: sketch of mechanism
• Large volume described in EP-0754625-A1
required
• Many components involved

Conclusion:
As the mechanism is not suitable for the small available volume on board of CubeSats it is not
considered in further research.

2.2.5.2.2 Release from P-POD

This method is characterized by the fact that it does not require any further components. As nothing
except the P-POD is locking the deployable solar panels in their stowed position they are deployed
during the ejection from the P-POD. However, when the CubeSat is launched together with other
satellite or depending on the launch vehicle this approach could cause harm to those. Moreover,
required by the CubeSat specification (see requirement 2.4.2 in [1]) deployable mechanisms are
permitted to be activated as early as 30 minutes after the deployment of the satellite and not allowed
to be constrained by the P-POD only (see requirement 2.2.8 in [1])
However, this method is planned for the ParkinsonSAT mission of the US Naval Academy Satellite
Lab. (see page 26 in [35])
Advantages Disadvantages

• No additional components required • Incompatible with CubeSat

specification
• High reliability
• Endangering neighboring
• High volume and mass efficiency
components / satellites
• Simple mechanism
• Possible impact on deployment
from P-POD

28
Conclusion:
As the method has a very simple approach and a high reliability, it would be interesting to use
within this project. However, the issue about the violation of the specification must be negotiated
with the launch provider.

2.2.5.2.3 Decompression
This proposed mechanism utilizes the vacuum in space to actuate a pin-
puller. In the stowed position the pressure in both chambers of the
cylinder as at an equal level, while the upper one in the figure is
separated from the vacuum by a membrane. The release actuation can
be triggered by the material degradation of the membrane or its
intentional destruction by an addition mechanism. In order to adjust the
actuation speed the diameter of the hole in the cylinder or another
throttle could be used. A breaking membrane, as shown in Figure 37,
could be the simplest option for a time delayed blow-off valve. Figure 37: schematic
In addition to the mentioned applications the pressure inside the sketch of proposed release
chambers could be increased in order to use the mechanism as cutting by decompression
mechanism.

Advantages Disadvantages

• No additional energy required • Time of release roughly defined

• No external trigger required • Production of space debris
• No space heritage
• Functional risk due to
uncertainties in material
• Danger of leakages before release
• Large thickness of wall required
• High volume consumption
Conclusion:
The thickness of the membrane for the survival against a pressure difference similar to the pressure
at sea level, the thickness would be too large for practical applications in CubeSats. However, future
materials might resolve this issue.

29
2.2.5.2.4 Pyrotechnical cutter
Pyrotechnics are widely used for release mechanisms in many different
space systems, e. g. for stage separation of multistage rockets. In
applications for solar panel deployment they are mostly used as cutting
device. The principle structure is very similar to the earlier described HOP
actuators. However, pyrotechnical cutters replace the solid paraffin by an
explosive mixture. As the detonation creates a high pressure, the
performance increase is very high compared to HOP actuators enabling
pyrotechnical cutters to release bolts of bigger diameter. Due to the
simplicity of the mechanism it is very reliable. [10]
Advantages Disadvantages

• Large space heritage and widely • Introduction of

used mechanism vibrations to Figure 38: schematic
structure sketch of a pyrotechnical
• High volume efficiency cutter
• Endangering other components or
• High mass efficiency
satellites in P-POD
• High forces achievable
• Prohibited by CubeSat
• No danger of leakages specification
Conclusion:
As pyrotechnic mechanisms are prohibited by the CubeSat specification they are not considered
within this project.

2.2.5.2.5 Mechanical by releasing key

This volume-consuming but reliable method was selected by the Tokyo Institute of Technology for
its first CubeSat CUTE-1. It is based on a plunger which is connected to the deployable panel. The
plunger is locked by a rail. This driven by an electric motor via a small gearing. The stopper is
released after a rotation of the rail by an angle of 270 degrees. Despite the large consumed volume
the solution was chosen to decouple the risk of failure of the solar array and the antenna
deployment. [3] [36]

Figure 39: release sequence at the CUTE-1 mission

30
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Space heritage • Large volume required

• High reliability • Large mass consumption
• Reusable • External energy required
• Demanding lubrication
• Many components
• Complex mechanism

Conclusion:
As the volume consumption is very high for this mechanism, it is not considered any further within
this project.

2.2.5.3 Magnetic solutions

2.2.5.3.1 Weakening magnet field by spool
This method utilizes strong magnets for locking the solar panel in the stowed position.
In order to release a second magnetic field is produced by a coil to counteract the
magnet force of the permanent magnet which should consist of an alloy similar to
Neodymium-iron-Boron to maximize the clamping force during launch. In order to
decrease the required power for the coil it should be placed further away from the
rotational axis compared to permanent magnet.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple mechanism • High mass required due to

ferromagnetic materials
• High clamping forces achievable Figure 40:
• Disturbance of on-board schematic sketch of
• Little volume required
instruments and a magnet release
components mechanism
• Specific material for panel
required
• Danger of cold-welding
• High stress on panel
• No space heritage
Conclusion:
As the magnets interfere with the on-board magnetometers this method can only be used for
mission not requiring magnetic field measurements. For the scope of this project this is
unacceptable, as it should work for generic space missions.

31
2.2.5.3.2 Cone movement by pusher
The application of magnet pushers is described in this
section uses a cone to maximize the clamping force. At
release time the pin moves the cone away from the blocking
position freeing the solar panel to deploy. However, as the
cone and the spring form an oscillator the natural
frequencies of the systems have to be investigated
thoroughly.

Figure 41: cone based release

mechanism
Advantages Disadvantages

• High clamping forces • Cone-spring form oscillator

• Force amplification by cone • Additional energy required
• Reusable • Danger of cold-welding between
cone, housing and panel
• Use of COTS
• No space heritage

Conclusion:
As the mechanism consumes a considerable volume it is not considered for further research.

2.2.6 Actuating mechanism for articulation

As most of the mechanisms in this section were already discussed in the section about actuation
mechanisms for deployment, only differences to that section are discussed in this chapter.

2.2.6.1 Flat electric motor

In [37] the Moog Inc. proposed a compact motor for pointing
purposes. Unlike common mechanisms this device can handle
tilting in two degrees of freedom at the same time. The main part
of the motor is a gimbal with attached magnets. These magnets
are oriented by adjusting the magnetic field induced from the
coils in Figure 42. For the use for articulating a solar array in
this project, however, the mechanism is not suitable as the motor
is limited to an angle range of 90 degrees. The design described Figure 42: electric motor
in [46] has still dimensions of 6 times 6 times 4 centimeters. The described in [37]
website of the manufacturer does not give any more recent information.

32
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Compact design (flat, compared to • High additional energy required

common electric motors) for actuation
• Arbitrary articulating angles at any • Additional energy constantly
time possible required for locking
• Useful after further miniaturization • Strong magnetic field causes
disturbances in instruments
• Large volume required
• Large mass consumption
• Limited angle range

Conclusion:
As the mechanism is still to large for the use in CubeSats, it is not considered for this project any
more. After further miniaturization in future, it might become useful for CubeSat missions.

2.2.6.2 Piezoelectric motors

Piezoelectric motors, like the Squiggle motor SQL-RV-1-8, are actuators of very small size, e. g. 2.8
x 2.8 x 6 mm. As they are linear motors it is necessary to include a converter from a linear to a
rotating movement. This can be done by cams, windings or by a direct connection to the solar panel.
The maximum power consumption is 1.8 watts. A motor driver is needed for the operation of the
motor. In order to meet the space requirements this has to be implemented on a custom PCB. [38]
Advantages Disadvantages

• High volume efficiency • Require linear to rotation

conversion (like cam, windings or
• No power required for locking
crankshafts)
• High mass efficiency
• Additional driver required
• High positing precision
• Driver has to be self integrated to
meet space requirements
• No space heritage
• Insufficient temperature range (-30
– 80 ° C)
Conclusion:
When kept within the temperature range, the mechanism offers a good control of the articulation
angle. Therefore it is considered for further research.

33
2.2.6.3 High Output Paraffin (HOP) motor with cam
Mechanisms based on HOP motors are similar to
the ones with squiggle motors, as both are linear
actuators. The mechanism described in has a
diameter of 2.58 centimeters and a length of 15
centimeters. The coil spring keeps the solar panel
in the stowed position. This system measures the
Sun incident angle by an electronic Sun sensor.
The control system then adjusts the orientation of
the solar panel by switching on and off the HOP
actuator. Power required by the system is Figure 43: SPSPAD system from Starsys
generated by the system itself. [39] Figure 43 Research Corp.
shows the complete mechanism.

Advantages Disadvantages

• High reliability • Danger of cold-welding

• No shock operation • High power consumption
• Reusable • Large volume required (2.58 x 15
cm)
• High mass efficiency compared to
force

Conclusion:
As the system is too big to fit in the space required for the mission, it will not be considered any
further in the scope of this project.

2.2.6.4 Shape memory alloys

The system is essentially the same as described in section 2.2.1.3.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Passive mode possible • Limited to two final positions

(two-way memory effect)
• Active mode possible
• Damping mechanism required for
• High volume efficiency (passive
more positions
mode)
• Material training required
• High mass efficiency (passive
mode) • Possibly protected by patents (DE-
69604165-T2, EP0817744B1,
US6062511A)
Conclusion:
As SMA are a promising mechanism with a high work to mass ratio they are considered as a
possible mechanism in this project.

34
2.2.6.5 Torsion spring in hinge
The system is essentially the same as described in section 2.2.1.4. However, as in both types, with
and without SMA, the final deployment angle is predefined, another mechanism has to be used to
clamp the solar panel at positions in between. This could be for example done by the use of
electro- / magneto-rheologic liquids.
Advantages Disadvantages

• High volume efficiency • Damping mechanism required

• High mass efficiency • Small torques available
• Predefined characteristics
Conclusion:
The use of a clamping mechanism could spoil the memorization abilities of the material. As an
alternative the actuation frequency of the SMA material should be reduced to sufficiently low rates.

2.2.6.6 Spiral Spring

The system is essentially the same as described in section 2.2.1.5. However, as in both types with
and without SMA the final deployment angle is predefined, another mechanism has to be used to
clamp the solar panel at positions in between. This could be realized by the use of electro- /
magneto-rheologic liquids.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Direct torque transfer • Damping mechanism required

• Linear characteristic • Small torques available
• Predefined characteristics
• Difficult to mount at panel
Conclusion:
As the size of the solution is too big compared to alternatives it is dropped for this project.

2.2.6.7 Bi-metal strips

Bi-metal strips generate their actuation movement from different thermal
expansion ratios of materials bonded together. As the change in length
and therefore the achieved angle is directly proportional to the
temperature of the mechanism it offers the ability for arbitrary actuation
processes when using an applied heater.
An application of this type of mechanisms is described in the US-patent
3,311,322. (see Figure 44) As Sun light is shining on the strip (28) it
starts expanding, thus, changing the sun incident angle of the solar panel.
In order to control the movement of the solar panel another metal sheet
(32) is used to shadow parts of the strip.
A mechanism which automatically adjusts its orientation according to its
Figure 44: mechanism
temperature was also claimed in the patents EP-0817744-B1 and US-
based on bi-metal strips
6062511-A. However, these patents are already lapsed.
(Source: US-3,311,322)

35
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Active mode possible • Materials limited to space

qualified only
• Passive mode possible
• Possibly protected by patents in
• Arbitrary positions defined by
Europe (DE-69604165-T2,
temperature
EP0817744B1, US6062511A)
• High mass efficiency
• High volume efficiency

Conclusion:
As the mechanism offers a good control of the articulated angle and has a redundant functionality it
should be further considered within this project. In order to decrease the size of the bi-metallic
strips even further they could be combined with a hinge leaving just the actuation to them.

2.2.6.8 Torsion bar spring in hinge

The system is essentially the same as described in section 2.2.1.7.

Advantages Disadvantages

• High volume efficiency • Damping mechanism required

• High mass efficiency • Limited to combination without
torsion bar spring as actuating
• Provides torque directly
mechanism for deployment
• Limited capability for shear forces
Conclusion:
As torsion bar springs are very volume-efficient and can be incorparated with
SMA, they will be considered in the further research.

2.2.6.9 By linear displacement

This technique is based on the latch mechanism described in section 2.2.4.10. It
articulates when the motor with gear-head (50) drives the spindle drive
consisting of a screw (52) and the corresponding slider (54). The slider (58)
moves then within the groove in (56) causing the panel to articulate. Guidance
for the rotational movement of the panel is provided by part (60). Apart from the
selected rotational motor HOP actuators or Squiggle motors could be also used
to avoid a volume consuming rotational to linear conversion. [40]
Figure 45: mechanism
using linear
displacement for
articulation
(Source: [40])

36
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Can be incorporated with hop • Limited angle range

actuators or piezoelectric motors
• Large volume required
• Precise articulation
• Complex mechanism
• Provides locking
• Large mass required
• Additional actuator required

Conclusion:
As the mechanism consumes a large volume, it is not considered any further within this project.

2.2.6.10 Stepper Motor

Stepper motors offer a high flexibility and precision for the articulation process. The accuracy and
the torque can be further improved by the use of a gearing. This could be volume-efficient either
done by a planetary gearing or rope based gearing. Another advantage of stepper motors is their
good controllability.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Retractable • Additional energy required

• High precision • Requires additional control circuit
• Can be locked in position by detent
torque
• No release mechanism required
• Large torques achievable
Conclusion:
Because of the good control of stepper motors and their high precision stepper motors are
considered an option within this project. The additional required energy can be minimized by small
duty cycles.

2.2.7 Control mechanism for articulating

2.2.7.1 Electronic controller
Electronic controllers are widely used in any field of engineering. For the articulation of solar arrays
their usage is limited to the actively controlled mechanisms. In order to generate an accurate
actuation signal they need sensors to determine the Sun incident angle on the solar panels.
Alternatively they can be recalibrated by the detection of the angle with the highest power output.
The controller could also be included in the general flight avionics to save volume.

37
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Use of COTS • Requires additional sensors

• Large space heritage • Requires additional energy
• High flexibility regarding control • Requires additional circuits
Conclusion:
As electronic controllers require additional mechanisms and energy, they should be avoided in the
design of this project unless the complexity of the system would increase too much.

2.2.7.2 Changing shadowing mechanically

This method was already briefly described in section 2.2.1.7. It is included in this chapter to show
the full scope of possibilities.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Passive system • Likely to be protected by patents

• High volume efficiency • Limited to two different states
• High mass efficiency • Limited to predefined direction
shadows

Conclusion:
As the orientation of the shield is fixed during the whole mission time it is difficult to adjust solar
panel to changing solar incident angles during a complete year. This could be overcome by a change
the transparency of the shield along its angular range.

2.2.7.3 Clamping by electro-rheologic / magneto-rheologic fluids

As many articulation mechanisms are designed for a fixed deployment angle clamping mechanisms
based on electro-rheologic or magneto-rheologic fluids could be used to stop the solar panel at the
desired angles. Background information about this mechanism can be found in the chapter about
damping deployment mechanisms. (see section 2.2.4.6)
Advantages Disadvantages

• Can be incorporated with any • High electric / magnetic field

spring actuating mechanisms strength required
• Clamping at arbitrary dynamically • Danger for other components
chosen position
• Disturbances to instruments
• Also suitable for damping
• Current drawn during clamping
Conclusion:
As the systems adds large perturbations on the electronics on board of CubeSats and the risk of
leakage the mechanism is not considered any further.

38
2.2.7.4 Photo-chromatic lens
Another possible solution to create a time depended incident solar radiation can be achieved by
photo-chromatic lenses. The base material used is Silver-bromide or Silver-chloride. Under incident
UV-radiation these substances decompose changing themselves from transparent to opaque. This
could be utilized for creating a specific temperature profile with heating and cooling during the
daylight part of the orbit.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Passive mechanism • High complexity

• High reliability • Danger of leakages
• Suitable for bi-metallic and shape
memory alloys based solutions
only
• No space heritage
• Low cycle number (usually below
104 [42])
Conclusion:
As the technique is not space-proven, it should be avoided if possible.

2.2.7.5 External friction

The mechanism of external friction (see section 2.2.4.4) can be also applied for clamping the solar
panel in desired positions. It is also similar to the clamping by electro-rheologic / magneto-
rheologic fluids.
Advantages Disadvantages

• High reliability (clamping) • Danger of cold welding

• Large mass required
• Large volume required
• No space heritage
Conclusion:
As the mechanism is not space-proven and has also a high risk of cold welding it is not considered
further within the scope of this project.

39
2.2.7.6 Photo-diodes with shield for damping
The US-patent US-20090314279-A1 (see Figure
) describes an arrangement of photo diodes which
is also shadowed similar to the mechanism
described in the section about changing shadowing
mechanically. However, the shadow region, the
ideal range, is used in this device to separate the
forward and backward sensing range from each
other.
Current produced by the photo-diodes can be used
to drive an electric motor via a relay to orient the
solar panel to towards the ideal range.
Figure 46: photo-diodes with shield to create
forward (right part), backward and ideal ranges
Advantages Disadvantages

• Range of 180° for controlling • Large volume required

• Range without control • Large mass required
• Needs additional controller
Conclusion:
As the shield needs a sufficiently high distance between sensors and itself the mechanism requires
too much volume to be used within the scope of this project.

2.2.8 Types of Solar Cells

Solar cells are the most used energy source for Earth orbiting satellites since the beginning of the
space age. Since then, beginning from rigid silicon solar cells more advanced technologies like thin
film solar cells were developed. In order to increase the efficiency further other materials, like
Gallium-Arsenide, and more layers for different spectral bands were introduced.
The complete power system of a spacecraft consists of the energy source, – in this section solar
cells – batteries, a power control system and the wiring. In order to generate the required electric
currents and voltages solar cells are connected in series and in parallel. Voltage requirements are
met by series connections, while current requirements make use of parallel circuits.
Solar cells experience degradation during their lifetime. Cover-glass that protects the active material
of the cells changes its translucency due to solar UV radiation. [41] Another notable degradation
source is particle radiation.

2.2.8.1 Silicon solar cells

Rigid solar cells are the type with the longest space heritage. They have a good radiation resistance
and can be produced very low costs. The first use was on board of the Vanguard 1 satellite. In order
to improve the energy to weight ratio modern solar cells are manufactured using the thin layer
technology. Thin film solar cells were first used for the first solar panel of the Hubble Space
Telescope. [42] This also improves the radiation resistance even further. Current solar cells provide
a conversation efficiency of 14.8 percent and experience a degradation of 15 percent by 1 MeV
electrons in 10 years. [43] Silicon solar cells are used as primary energy source on board of the
International Space Station (ISS). [41]

40
 Advantages Disadvantages

• Cheap and unlimited raw-material • Larger area required (→ higher

mass and volume compared to
• Well matured processing
GaAs based)
technologies
• More prone to radiation damage
• Full knowledge of all material
properties • Lower efficiency
• Small density of material
• Large space heritage
Conclusion:
Even though silicon solar cells are very cheap and very mature, they will not be used within this
project as most CubeSats already use more efficient solar cells.

2.2.8.2 Rigid Gallium-Arsenide solar cells

Rigid Gallium-Arsenide solar cells were the next step in the development of solar cells. They
feature improvements in efficiency and radiation resistance. Current solar cells provide a
conversation efficiency of 18.5 percent and experience a degradation of 15 percent by 1 MeV
electrons in 33 years. [43] However, compared to silicon based solar cells they are more expensive
and have a higher mass.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Higher efficiency • Higher density of material

• Widely used in newer satellites • High cost
• Good radiation resistance
Conclusion:
Despite the advantages over silicon based solar cells, Gallium-Arsenide solar cells are not
considered within this project, as one of the aims of the project is the highest economic possible
power output.

2.2.8.3 Triple-Junction Solar cells

While the earlier discussed solar cells use just one n-p junction, triple junction solar cells combine
three material pairs to cover a larger part of the spectrum of the electromagnetic radiation. A
possible combination is the three junctions are Gallium-Indium-Phosphorus, Gallium-Indium-
Arsenide and Germanium. Current solar cells provide a conversation efficiency of 28.3 percent [44]
and experience a degradation of 15 percent by 1 MeV in 33 years.[43]
Advantages Disadvantages

• Highest efficiency • High cost

• Good radiation resistance • Complex mechanism
Conclusion:
Triple-Junction solar cells offer the highest conversation rate and a good radiation resistance. This

41
enables this project of reaching the optimum power output from the solar cells. Therefore triple-
Junction solar cells will be used within this project.

2.3 Thermal Issues

Space systems undergo large temperature variations of up to 200 K during an orbit. These cause
thermally induced stresses between attached parts and can lead to fatigue of the material. In order to
minimize this effect materials with a similar coefficient of thermal expansion should be used in any
possible situation. Another possibility to reach this goal partially is the utilization of larger
tolerances that allow the expansion to occur. Thus the resulting stress level is also lower compared
to the restricted case.

2.4 Vibration testing

Vibrations during launch can cause severe damages on satellites sent to space. These might be
caused by the loosening of parts or impacts. Therefore it is important to perform vibrational
analyses and testing during the design process of any component for launch qualification. Such tests
commonly involve sine survey, random vibration and shock tests. The first one is used to investigate
the modes of the oscillation for the components. Using the results requirements demanding a
minimum natural frequency can be verified. Random vibration tests evaluate the influence of
random oscillations during launch. The last ones are important for the understanding of the
vibrations during separation maneuvers.
Computational simulations are usually based on finite element models. The sine survey is
commonly named as modal analysis and also the first step for a random vibration analysis. In the
second step the actual analysis is performed resulting in displacements and stresses. Random
vibration simulations use spectral densities (see chapter 7.1.1) as input for the excitation of the
assembly. These can be retrieved for the specific launch vehicle. CubeSat missions use a generic
acceleration spectral density which should represent all major launch vehicles. [45]
Practical tests can be performed by the utilization of shaker tables, loud speakers or hammers as
excitation sources. This report will focus on the use of shaker tables.

2.5 Materials
Materials are very important to ensure that mechanical components work in the expected way. This
section gives an overview of the materials considered for the design of the mechanical mechanism
and structure.

2.5.1 Steel
Austenitic steels are used for propulsion systems due to their toughness also at low temperatures
and their good resistance against aggressive fuels. [46] Other steel alloys are utilized for optical and
high precision assemblies, as their coefficient of thermal expansion can be adjusted as required.
Components including the processing with galvanization might experience a higher brittleness
because of diffusing hydrogen. However, this can be resolved by appropriate counter-measures.
Another kind of steel used in space technology are Invar alloys. These offer a good stiffness in the
temperature range between -200 and 100 °C. [47] Invar steels are alloys with 35 percent nickel and
face-centered cubic crystal models. The extraordinary property of this kind of steels is the very
small coefficient of thermal expansion below the Curie – temperature. Above this temperature the
material is behaving as other common materials. A further discussion for this behavior can be found
in [2].

42
Ferromagnetism of some steel alloys might be also an issue when using magnetometers on board of
the satellite. [48]
In general, steel alloys are resistant against the environmental conditions in space, i. e. radiation,
atomic oxygen and vacuum. [46]
Advantages Disadvantages

• Easy machinable • High density

• High yield strength • Danger of hydrogen embrittlement
• Good resistivity against space • Danger of ferromagnetism
environment
• Additional wiring outside panel
• Low cost required
• Additional isolation layer required
Conclusion:
Due to its high weight, steel should be just used in areas where the high stiffness is required.

2.5.2 Aluminum
Aluminum alloys are characterized by their good stiffness to mass ratio, good machinability and
low magnetism. However, the yield strength is comparable low. In order to prevent problems by the
assembly of components of different materials, the high coefficient of thermal expansion must be
taken into account. Even though aluminum has a small specific heat capacity, it is a very good
thermal conductor. Use under space conditions requires a protective layer against corrosion. [32]
Apart from the danger of cold-welding aluminum is not affected by the conditions in space. [46]
When using aluminum as substrate for the solar cells, an additional layer has to be applied to assure
the insulation of the panel and cells.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Good stiffness-mass ratio • High coefficient of thermal

expansion
• Good heat conduction
• Protective layer against corrosion
• Good resistivity against space
required
environment
• Danger of cold-welding between
• Good machinable
different parts
• Low density
• Small structures difficult to
• Low costs manufacture
• Small yield strength
• Additional wiring required
Conclusion:
As Aluminum has a very low density it should be used in as many structural components as
possible.

43
 2.5.3 PCB
The panel itself could be also manufactured as a PCB. This would simplify the electric design
significantly, as the complete harnessing can be done within the panel. Compared to the materials
mentioned above its material – FR-2 – comes with a smaller coefficient of thermal expansion and a
lower density. Solar cells can be attached to a panel manufactured as PCB without any additional
isolation layer.
Advantages Disadvantages

• Simple harnessing • Danger of outgasing

• Common practice • Sensitive to UV radiation
• Small density • Sensitive to particle radiation
• Coefficient of thermal expansion • Sensitive to atomic oxygen
similar to range of aluminum and
• Inserts for attachment required
steel
Conclusion:
As the material simplifies the harnessing and can be adjusted to fit with the coefficient of thermal
expansion, a PCB used will be used for the solar panel within the scope of this report.

2.5.4 Titanium
Titanium has beside a weaker magnetism a significantly higher yield strength as compared to
aluminum. As it features a substantial lower density – between 3.37 and 4.85 g/cm3 compared to
7.85 g/cm3 – as steel at a similar yield strength, its specific stiffness is very high. Moreover, it has in
the unalloyed state a very high corrosion resistance. Using alloys it also offers a durability at low
temperatures. Thermal properties are a small thermal conductance, a small specific thermal capacity
and a small coefficient of thermal expansion. Therefore thermal induced stresses are very small. The
good damping properties of titanium make also suitable for applications with shock loads. Despite
all this advantages, the materials is very expensive and requires comparable large efforts for the
manufacturing of components. Furthermore, it requires a protective layer against corrosion. [32]
[49]
Advantages Disadvantages

• High specific stiffness • Bad thermal conductivity

• Good resistance against corrosion • Protective layer against corrosion
required
• Small coefficient of thermal
expansion • High costs
• Good damping properties • Difficult to manufacture
• Additional wiring required
Conclusion:
Titanium could be considered in applications where its yield strength is sufficient in order to save
mass compared to a solution with steel. However, the machine workshop must be able to meet the
requirements for the use of titanium.

44
 2.6 Solar Panels
The maximum size of the solar panels with in this project is defined by the CubeSat specification.
[1] Other constraints are induced by the layout of the solar cells. Usually the shape of the solar cells
cannot be changed. This limits the area of the solar panel covered by solar panels. By optimization
of the pattern of the solar cells 3U CubeSats can usually put up to 8 solar cells on a side facing
panel. [50] Every solar panel is estimated to generate around 1 Watt on orbit average. This can be
improved by articulation, as discussed in chapter 6.2.

2.7 Summary and Conclusion

The most promising actuation mechanisms for deployment and articulation are springs based on
SMA, bi-metal strips, squiggle motors and stepper motors. For guiding no guiding, flexible joints or
hinges should be considered. In order to reduce the stress on connection lines these can be formed
similar to a spiral spring. Passive controllers which change the intensity of the incident sun light
should be preferred against electronic controllers. The considered mechanisms are given in the
following list:
• Actuation for deployment
◦ Flexible joints
◦ Shape memory alloys
◦ Torsion spring in hinge
◦ Torsion bar spring in hinge
◦ Coil Spring
• Guidance
◦ Flexible joints
◦ Mechanical guidance
• Damping
◦ Counter-force by spiral spring
• Actuation for articulation
◦ Bi-metal strips
◦ Piezoelectric motors
◦ Torsion spring in hinge
◦ Torsion bar spring in hinge
◦ Electric motors
• Damping
◦ Changing shadow mechanically
◦ Electronic controller
◦ Photo-chromatic lens
• Solar cells

45
 ◦ Triple-junction solar cells
• Materials
◦ Steel
◦ Aluminum
◦ PCB

46
 3 Thesis Statement
The generated electric energy on orbit average can be increased by at minimum P O=12 Wh at
AM0 by the use of articulated solar panels within the constraints mentioned below:
• Output voltage between 16 and 20 volts
• Embedded torque coil including interface
• Temperature sensor at back side of panel
• Possibility to print antenna circuit on or with in the array substrate without degradation of
array performance
• Electrical interface for antenna, torque coil, power and temperature sensor
• Size:
◦ 10x30x0.6 cm (placed completely outside of spacecraft) for deployed solar array
◦ 10x30x1.6 cm for articulating solar array
• Mass:
◦ 182.5 gram
• Compliance to the launch loads specified in NASA GEVS
• Compatibility with on orbit temperatures
• Compatibility of thermal expansion / contracting of all used materials

47
 4 Plan and approach
4.1 Approach
Chapter 2 concluded that two options for the implementation of an articulated solar panel should be
considered, one based on shape memory alloys or bi-metal and the other based on electric stepper
motors. In the scope of this thesis the second option is used in the final design due to the decreased
complexity of the design. An overview of how good the suggested mechanisms from chapter 2.2
meet the requirements is given in the following section.

48
4.2 Decision Table
Actuation Size Mass Launch On orbit Reliability
mechanism - requirements requirements loads temperatures
deployment
Coil spring
Flexible joints
Shape memory alloys
Torsion spring
Spiral spring
Electric motor
Torsion bar spring
Spin of satellite
Deployable boom
Inflatable boom
Lanyard deployment
Canister deployment

Guiding Size Mass Launch On orbit Reliability

mechanism - requirements requirements loads temperatures
deployment
Rotational deployment
Telescopic cylinder
Tether
Scissors shaped booms
Synchronization by rope
mechanisms
Flexible joints

Damping Size Mass Launch On orbit Reliability

mechanism - requirements requirements loads temperatures
deployment
Spiral spring
Rotation damper
Electric motor
External Friction
Eccentric bolt
Electric damping
Friction in joints
Belleville springs
Rubber damper
Latch
Torsion spring

49
Initial release Size Mass Launch On orbit Reliability
mechanism requirements requirements loads temperatures
Thermal loosening
Heat wire
Phase changes
Shape memory alloys
Electric motor
P-POD
Decompression
Pyrotechnical cutter
Release key
Weakening magnetic field
Pusher

Actuation Size Mass Launch On orbit Reliability

mechanism - requirements requirements loads temperatures
articulation
Flat electric motor
Piezoelectric motor
HOP motor
Shape memory alloys
Torsion spring
Spiral spring
Bi-metal strips
Torsion bar spring
Linear displacement
Stepper motor

Control Size Mass Launch On orbit Reliability

mechanism - requirements requirements loads temperatures
articulation
Electronic controller
Changing shadowing
Clamping
Photo-chromatic lens
External friction
Photo-diodes

Solar cells Power Mass Launch On orbit Reliability

requirements loads temperatures
Silicon solar cells
Rigid Gallium-Arsenide
Triple-junction solar cells

Materials Embedded Temperature Printed Outgasing Thermal

torque coil sensor antenna expansion
circuit
Steel
Aluminum
PCB
Titanium

50
 5 Solution
Based on the plan from chapter 4 the final design for the panel is described below. The middle part
consists of a brush-less electric motor and a corresponding planet gear head, i. e. the ADM 0620 and
06/01 16:1 from Micromo Inc. These provide a precision of 0.6 degrees in half step mode. They are
attached by three set screws to the middle connector which in terms is screwed to the satellite body.
For articulation the right active part of the hinge is attached by two the set screws to the outgoing
shaft of the gear box. The outer parts are completely passive. They consist of the left and right
connector, the hinges and shafts which attach the different parts by the utilization of retaining rings.
In order to define a proper position of the hinge with respect to the shaft both are connected by set
screws similar to the hinge at the opposite side.
In order to meet the requirements for the mechanical envelope, the whole mechanism is mounted at
the satellite partially inside of it, i. e. the side face of the satellite is placed above face of the joints.
This is depicted in Figure 47.

Figure 47: Compliance to

Mechanical Envelope

Figure 48 depicts the solar panel attached to the mechanism shown in Figure 49. The panel is
manufactured as a PCB (see Figure 50) in order to simplify the harnessing (prototype aluminum)
and to reduce the mass. It is designed with one internal copper layer for the harnessing and the

Figure 48: complete design including attached solar panel

embedding of torque coils and/or antennas with contacts at the appropriate side of the board.
All solar cells are connected in series. Using the cables soldered to the connector pins at the right,
the solar panel is connected to a socket at the top of the satellite. For the use of the proposed socket

51
 and plug (DF13-10S-1.25C and DF13-10P-1.25DS from [51]) it might be necessary to place the
socket partially inside of the satellite. One temperature sensor, one home switch, one heat winding
and three rubber pads, one in a central position and two at the far corners, are attached to the back
side. The two later mentioned are used to decrease the response of the panel to launch induced
vibrations. Loosening of screws during launch is prevented by the securing them with epoxy.

Figure 49: Overview of complete mechanism without solar panel

On orbit, the wire pressing the pads to the satellite body will be cut by the heat winding. Afterward
the panel can be articulated by the motor and its control electronics, as claimed in the thesis
statement. The home switch is used to reset the position pointer to a specific reference position.
Data sheets on all used components can be found in the appendix of this document.

Figure 50: electrical layout of PCB

52
 6 Design Prototype
Before starting with the design of the actuation devices some of the requirements, in particular
regarding temperature and power, need further refinement. This will result in some key parameters,
like a specified temperature range or the required area of solar cells. Afterward, the motor is derived
from the given parameters.

6.1 Revision of Requirements

6.1.1 Orbital Temperatures
The influence of the dissipated heat of the satellite on the temperature of the deployed solar panels
can be neglected. Thus, the only contribution is the incident IR radiation. The used parameters are
summarized in the table below:

Symbol Value Description

h 400 km Orbital Altitude
W
GS 1367 2 Solar constant, average value
m
S 0.92 Absorptivity of Solar cells, value from [44]
S 0.85 Emissivity of Solar cells, value from [44]
 BS 0.84 Emissivity of the back side of the solar panels
(assumed black paint 3M Black Velvet, see [21])
i 40 ° Inclination of orbit
a 0.57 Earth's albedo (see [52])
RE 6378 km Earth's radius
W
q EIR 257 2 Earth's emitted black body IR radiation (see [52])
m
−8 W
 5.67⋅10 2 Stefan-Boltzmann constant
m ⋅K
W
q SC 227 2 Power converted to electricity (see next section)
m

As the solar panels are deployed away from the satellite, the heat influx from the satellite body can
be neglected. The remaining incoming heat consists of direct solar flux, albedo and Earth IR. The
first can be expressed by the following term:
W
q Solar =G S⋅ S −q SC =1031
m2
Contributions from the albedo are calculated by:
q albedo=G S⋅ S⋅a⋅K a⋅sin 2  ,
where
sin(ρ) angular size of Earth
Ka factor for correction of reflection from the spherical Earth is.

53
Using the following formula the necessary angular size can be determined:

=arcsin  
RE
r
=1.226

By using this value the correction factor is:

K a =0.6640.521⋅−0.203⋅ 2=0.9976≈1
Now the heat flux from albedo can be calculated:
W
q albedo=633.43
m2
The remaining heat fraction is the Earth emitted infrared radiation:
2 W
q IR =q EIR⋅ S⋅sin =193.49
m2
where
sin  the angular size of the Earth is.
Therefore the incoming heat flux sums to:
W W
q in =q Solar q albedo q IR=1031633193  2
=1857 2
m m
The emitted heat energy from the spacecraft is under the assumption of a sun light incident side
fully covered by solar cells:
q out = S BS ⋅⋅T 4
where
T temperature of the corresponding surface
is.
Rearranging the formula leads under the assumption of equilibrium conditions to the temperature of

the satellite: T =
4

 q in
 S BS ⋅
Putting in all known values delivers the surface temperature for the hot case:


W
1857
4 m2
T= =373 K =100 ° C
W
 0.850.84 ⋅5.67 ⋅ 10 −8

m ⋅K 4
2

The resulting temperature for the cold case is calculated by neglecting the solar and albedo
radiation:


W
193
4 m2
T= =212 K =−61 ° C
W −8
 0.850.84 ⋅5.67⋅ 10
m2⋅K 4
Remembering the worst-case assumptions, the resulting temperature should be in reality a little bit

54
smaller.

6.1.2 Estimation of required solar array area

An important parameter for the evaluation of different solar array techniques is the solar array area
required for given power requirement. This will be determined in this section. The required orbit
average power of 12 Wh (see chapter 3) gives the power needed from the solar panel. Some of the
parameters used in this section are summarized below:
Symbol Value Description
h 400 km Orbital Altitude
i 40 ° Inclination of orbit
RE 6378 km Earth's radius
N⋅m 2
G 6.67⋅10−11 Universal gravitational constant
kg 2
24
ME 5.974⋅10 kg Earth's mass
 28.3 % Efficiency of solar cells (see [44])
Po 12 Wh Average orbit power required from solar panel

Under the assumption of an altitude of 400 kilometers with an inclination of 40 degrees the
maximum shadowing orbit fraction can be determined by:
 1
= ⋅arcsin
2⋅ 
RE
R E h  
=39 %

With the orbital period determined by:


3
4⋅2⋅ R E h 
T= =5553 s=92.6 min
G⋅M E
This leads to an eclipse period of:

T e =T⋅ =36.1 min
2⋅
Using all know values and the time in daylight T d =T −T e , the power provided by the solar
array must be at minimum:
 PO 
P SA = =12.7 W
Td
Ultra triple junction solar cells have an efficiency  of 28.3 percent at BOL. Using the already
known values this gives the maximum deliverable power density at BOL:
W
P 0=⋅G S =386
m2
Using an estimated worst-case Sun incident angle  of 40° and inherent degradation I d of
0.77 (see [53]) the available power density at BOL results in:
W
P BOL=P 0⋅I d⋅cos   =227
m2

55
The lifetime degradation is estimated by:
satellite life


Ld = 1 –
degradation
year 
Using the degradation per year of 2.75 percent (see [54] for GaAs solar cells) and an estimated
satellite lifetime of one year the degradation becomes:
L d =0.9725
This results in an EOL power density of:
W
P EOL=P BOL⋅Ld =220.8
m2
Finally, this gives the required solar array area of:
P SA 12.7 W
A SA= = =0.058 m 2
P EOL W
220.8 2
m
This corresponds to a square of 0.24⋅0.24 m 2 .

6.2 Improvements by articulating solar panels

The calculation in the previous section assumed the worst case Sun-incident angle of 40 percent. In
order to decrease the determined solar array area, this section performs an analysis of the influence
of the Sun-incident angle on the power generated. This is done by the use of the program from the
Space Dynamics Lab of the Utah State University. Figure 51 shows the satellite in its orbit. One of
the simulations is presented in this thesis, covering the improvements for a time step of 15 minutes
throughout a complete year for body-fixed panels and panels adjusted in one and two degrees of
freedom.
In the body-fixed configuration the additional panel is mounted in parallel to the +x panel. This

Figure 51: Attitude of satellite during simulation (generated using Celestia)

56
 W
gives an average power density of 286 during one year. By rotation about the y – axis or x –
m2
W W
axis this value can be improved up to 817 2 or 496 2 respectively. An additional
m m
W
articulation in two degrees of freedom results in a slightly higher power density of 835 2 .
m
Thus, it is most promising to focus on a mechanism with one adjusted degree of freedom around the
y-axis.

6.3 Assembly of Solar Arrays

Solar arrays are manufactured by interconnecting solar cells. The voltage requirement is met by
connecting solar cells in series, the power or current requirement by connecting them in parallel.
For generating the power and voltage mentioned in the requirements, the solar array must consist of
at least 8 cells in series to produce a voltage at the point of maximum power between 16 and 20
volts. (see section 5 ) The design value is 18.8 volts. In order to generate a power of 12.7 watts (see
section 2.1.1) the required current is:
P
I mp= =0.68 A
V mp
Using the area of each solar cell ASC of 26.62 cm 2 and the current density at the point of
mA
maximum power J mp of 16.3 2 , this results in the number of solar cells strings needed to
cm
be in parallel:
I mp
n= =1.6≈ 2
A SC⋅J mp
Therefore the solar array should consist of at least 2 strings of 8 solar cells, which could be realized
with two deployable solar panels.

6.4 Design of Panel

The initial design of the panel was using an aluminum substrate in connection with wires for the
electrical attachments. However, due to the tight mass budget and for simplification of the
harnessing the material was shifted to a PCB. As described in chapter 5, it is still attached by screws
to the hinge. Unlike for the aluminum substrate the manufacturing of threads inside plastic materials
is very difficult. Therefore the threads are realized by the use of inserts.
After the conduction of computational vibration analysis, it became apparent that the resulting
deflections which were in the range of 60 millimeter are unacceptable, as this would cause an
impact of the solar panel at both the P-POD and the satellite. This was decreased a lot by the
already mentioned rubber pads for the movement away from the satellite and the heat wire for the
opposite. The resulting value is around 0.5 millimeters. A more detailed description of the analysis
is presented in the next chapter.

6.5 Thermal Expansion

This section gives a brief introduction to the design for compatibility of the thermal expansion of all
used materials. Three different material groups are used in the scope of this analysis, i. e. Steel (see
[55]), Aluminum 6061 (see [56]) and FR-2 (see [57]) for the PCB. One example depicted is the
compatibility between the PCB and one of the hinges attached to it. The midpoint distance between

57
the two outer screws is 16 millimeter. Using the corresponding thermal expansion coefficients this
delivers a mismatch of:
l =∣  St − FR−2 ⋅ T⋅l∣=0.02 mm
Even though the dimensions of the model are already pretty small, this mismatch can be neglected,
as it is in the range of less than one percent. Due to inaccuracies in the matching of the two hinges
the probably occurring mismatch between the two different parts of the hinges is of minor interest.
The second potentially risky mismatch appears at the attachment of the passive hinge to the shaft. In
this case the resulting mismatch is:

∣
l =   St − Al6061 ⋅T⋅l=  13 – 23.6 ⋅10−6
1
K ∣
⋅161 K⋅30 mm =0.05mm

This is also still within a range which can be managed by the current design.

6.6 Specification of selected electric motor

The data sheet of the motor (see [58]) states an operational temperature range of -35 to 70 °C. As
the temperatures determined in section 6.1.1 exceeds this limits, an analysis based the x panel of
the satellite was performed with the same parameters as given in section 6.1.2 . This resulted in a
temperature range between 16 and 20 °C. Therefore the motor is able to survive under the
conditions on orbit.
The torque provided by the motor and gear-head fits the necessary torque easily as the friction is on
orbit very small due to the missing gravity which acts as a normal force in an Earth's based
environment.

58
 7 Evaluation and Testing
The evaluation performed within this thesis, includes random vibration analysis and thermal
expansion analysis. While the first one is testing the performance of the mechanism during launch,
the later one analyzes the thermal induced deflection and stresses during one complete orbit.
Random vibration analyses are based on a power spectrum density which is taken from [45].

7.1 Evaluation by computer based simulations

This computational analysis uses educational version of the program Algor Simulation Professional
2011 from Autodesk Inc.

7.1.1 Vibration analysis

The first analysis was performed as a classical random vibration analysis based on a previous model
analysis. Figure 52 depicts the shape of the first oscillation mode which has a frequency of around
240 Hertz. The panel is totally fixed its right edge and constrained in the y-direction at the pads at
left end and in the center. Table shows the detected fundamental frequencies in the required range
between 20 and 2000 Hertz.

Table 1: fundamental frequencies of the panel with solar cells

Mode Frequency
Number
1 239.5 Hz
2 297.3 Hz
3 353.5 Hz
4 399.5 Hz
5 522.8 Hz
6 648.8 Hz
7 848.5 Hz
8 1041.9 Hz
9 1107.4 Hz
10 1246.0 Hz
11 1304.4 Hz
12 1730.4 Hz
13 1740.1 Hz
14 1886.3 Hz

59
Based on the results of the modal analysis a random vibration analysis was performed for a
damping rate of 1.5 percent. The results are shown in Figure 53. Despite the two fixing points at the

Figure 52: shape of the first vibration mode

free end, it seems like that this end undergoes the largest deflections. However, at a closer look this
results from the fact that the largest deflection in this analysis appears in x direction and around 0.2
mm. The deflections in the other directions are as expected and one order of magnitude smaller than
the ones in x direction.

Figure 53: Absolute Deflection from classical vibration analysis

In addition to the classical analysis as described before a time depended analysis as described in
[59] was performed. The general idea behind is to convert the power spectrum density by
approximation of the area below the curve in small slices to an oscillation for the specific

60
frequency. All different oscillations are afterward superimposed at random phase angles. The
resulting time series of acceleration amplitudes is then fed into a Mechanical Event Simulation
which allows the simulation of a system and a time varying accelerations. The results in terms of
deflection and stress are depicted in the Figures 54 and 55. Stress spikes in Figure 54 are calculation
artifacts and disappear in a finer mesh.

Figure 54: stress from dynamic vibration study

Figure 55: deflection from dynamic vibration study

All determined deflections are in a range where no damage to the components is expected. The
stresses determined from the analyses, however, might exceed the limits. Therefore a redesign with
another material might be necessary.

61
 7.2 Thermal Expansion
This simulation is performed to verify that the proposed design complies with the requirement of
the compatibility of the thermal expansion of all used materials. As the motor and gear-head
undergo a much smaller load compared to the loads applied to the hinges it was excluded from the
analysis. Temperatures change during the analysis from 0° C to 83 °C for the overall assembly. This
interval is similar to the on-orbit environment. Similar to the real attachment on-board of a satellite
the solar panel is fixed by four grounded screws. By the application of the above temperature
changes the following Figures result:

Figure 56: results from the thermal stress analysis of the solar panel mechanism
N
The highest resulting highest stress of 440 appears within the attachments at the satellite.
mm 2
As this part is made from aluminum, it is likely that the part will fail under the load. Thus, some
components need to be changed in material to comply with the requirement of compatibility in the
thermal expansion.

7.3 Evaluation by test of prototype model

The computational analysis gives already a good idea of the possible problems and behavior of the
panel. However, every mathematical model has to prove its suitability and accuracy by practical
tests. These are described in the following sections.

7.3.1 Vibration Test

A mechanism which is supposed to work on a satellite must sustain launch and on-orbit loads. The
dominating loads during the ascent phase are created by vibrations and shocks. As [60] states just
random vibration loads the tests through out this report are limited to a random vibration test in
three axes.

7.3.1.1 Test specification

Figure 57 depicts the proposed test setup for the vibration analysis. The block at the bottom is a

62
placeholder for the actual attachment to the shaker table. Due to simplifications in the setup the
mechanism is placed completely at the outside of the attachment. The wire going from the panel to
the attachment, the heat wire, is used to press the three depicted rubber pads to the attachment.
Unlike in the Figure the wire will tight, so it wouldn't be visible below the attachment.
The test will be performed in as random vibration test in three axes using the power spectrum
density from [45] (see table 2) and should validate the computational analysis and the survivability
of the design during launch and prove the survivability of the design.

Figure 57: sketch of the test setup for the vibration analysis
7.3.1.2 Test Procedure
The test should be performed by following these steps:
1. Attach the accelerometers at the desired positions
2. Screw hinges to attachment
3. Move panel to the locked position.
4. Attach heat wire to panel and shaker attachment with a force in the wire of 10 N.
5. Run test for one direction.

Table 2: Power Spectrum Density for the

random vibration test

Frequency Qualification ASD Level

(Hz) (G2 / Hz)
20 0.026
20-50 + 6 dB/octave
50-800 0.16
800-2000 - 6 dB/octave
2000 0.026
Overall 14.1 Grms

6. Repeat steps 1 to 5 for the other two directions

63
 7.3.2 Thermal Test
While the vibration test focuses on the launch environment, temperature induced stresses are
important in the on-orbit operation.

7.3.2.1 Test Specification

The test setup is similar to the vibration test. However, it is not required to use the heat wire to keep
the mechanism in its position, as the temperature changes happen in the deployed state. Earlier
analyses suggest that the largest stresses appear in the shafts and the attachments to the satellite. The
complete pattern in including the extremes will be measured by the use of photo-elasticity. The
temperature change will be in the order of 83 degrees Celsius.

7.3.2.2 Test Procedure

The test should be performed by following these steps:
1. Cover desired faces with photo-elastic layer
2. Screw hinges to attachment
3. Put assembly in thermal chamber
4. Increase the temperature of the mechanism by 83 degrees Celsius.
5. Measure the resulting strains at the desired points.

64
 8 Conclusion
This thesis presented a collection of mechanisms for actuation, guidance, damping, control and
release that can be used for used in space missions. It also discussed different types of solar cells
and materials. These were evaluated for the use in CubeSat missions. Other aspects like thermal and
vibration issues or the design of solar panels are addressed briefly. It was shown that the power
generated from a solar panel can be increased by a factor of almost 3 by the articulation around one
axis. Based on the stated requirements and the literature review a new design for an articulated solar
panel is suggested. It includes of a panel manufactured as a PCB. This is locked in the stowed
position by a heat wire. After release it can be articulated by a small stepper motor with a precision
of 0.6 degrees in half step mode.
The expected temperature range for the stepper motor lies within the operational range given in the
data sheets. Thermal induced deflections and stresses exceed the limits of some of the selected
materials. It is necessary to change the material of these parts from aluminum to steel. The
deflections resulting from the vibrational analyses are sufficiently small to avoid damage to the
solar cells, solar panel or the outside faces of the satellite.

65
 9 Future Work
The design presented in this paper was validated by computational analysis. Due
restrictions resulting from the analyses it is necessary to redesign the attachment parts
with new materials, e. g. steel. The previous analyses have to be verified by practical tests,
i. e. the proposed vibrational and thermal test. In addition to the suggested thermal tests
thermal cycling tests using the simulated on-orbit temperatures should be performed to
validate the reliability of the complete mechanism over the complete mission duration. The
influence of other parts of the space environment like atomic oxygen or particle radiation
on components and materials should also be further analyzed in the further efforts to
achieve a mature design suitable for launch. Lubricants currently used in the motor and
gears have to be replaced by others that have a sufficiently low vapor pressure to sustain
the vacuum of space.
In addition to the determined approximated temperature cycle a more precise thermal
analysis should be done to ensure that all components stay within the acceptance
temperature limits. The vibrational simulations might also need further refinement, as the
mass distribution in the final panel might be different due to changes in materials and the
harnessing inside of the panel.
The tests might also imply changes to the design, i. e. changes in the material of some
components. Apart from these changes it might also be necessary to adjust the design to
the actual structure of the satellite the solar panel will be attached to. For cost reasons, it
might be also reasonable to do further research into alternative mechanisms.

66
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Appendix
Engineering Drawings for components

70
71