BGS COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

DEPARTMENT OF MECHANICAL ENGINEERING

Mahalakshmi layout, Bengaluru- 560086

RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT

(BME654B)

MODULE - 03
 RENEWABLE ENERGY POWER PLANT (BME654B)

Syllabus: Module – 3
Wind Power Plants: Basics of wind energy and wind turbine technology, Types of wind
turbines: horizontal axis and vertical axis; Wind resource assessment and site selection for wind
power plants, Wind farm layout optimization and wake effects, Grid integration and power
system considerations for wind power plants.
Geothermal Energy Conversion: Principle of working, types of geothermal station with
schematic diagram, geothermal plants in the world, problems associated with geothermal
conversion, scope of geothermal energy.
.……………………………………………………………………………………………….
Basics of Wind Energy
1. Definition

Wind energy is the kinetic energy of moving air that can be converted into mechanical power or
electricity using wind turbines.

2. Origin of Wind

 Caused by uneven heating of the Earth's surface by the sun.

 Air moves from high-pressure areas to low-pressure areas, creating wind.

3. Advantages

 Renewable and sustainable

 Clean and non-polluting
 Reduces dependence on fossil fuels
 Low operating cost after installation

4. Disadvantages

 Intermittent and unpredictable

 Requires large open areas
 Visual and noise impact
 Bird and bat mortality risks

Wind Energy Conversion

1. Basic Principle

Wind turbines convert kinetic energy of wind into mechanical energy, which is then converted to
electrical energy using a generator.

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2. Power in the Wind

3. Betz’s Limit

 Theoretical maximum efficiency of wind turbine = 59.3%

 No wind turbine can capture more than this fraction of the wind’s energy.

4. Wind Turbine Operating Ranges

 Cut-in Speed: Minimum wind speed (~3 m/s) for turbine to start
 Rated Speed: Wind speed at which turbine produces maximum power
 Cut-out Speed: Maximum wind speed (~25 m/s) beyond which turbine shuts down to avoid
damage

Wind Energy Conversion System (WECS) Block Diagram

WECS Components:

1. Wind Turbine (Rotor and Blades): Captures kinetic energy from the wind.
2. Gearbox (optional): Adjusts rotational speed to suit the generator's input requirements.
3. Generator: Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy.
4. Power Electronics: Includes converters and inverters to manage power quality and grid
compatibility.
5. Controller: Monitors system performance and adjusts operations for optimal efficiency.
6. Grid Connection: Delivers generated electricity to the power grid or local loads

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Types of Wind Turbines

Wind turbines are mainly classified based on the orientation of their axis of rotation into:

1. Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines (HAWTs)

Definition:
These turbines have a rotor shaft aligned parallel to the ground and in the direction of the wind.

Key Features:

 Most commonly used type worldwide.

 Typically mounted on a tall tower.
 Require a yaw mechanism to align with the wind direction.

Advantages:

 Higher efficiency due to optimal blade aerodynamics.

 Better performance at high wind speeds.
 Suitable for large-scale power generation.

Disadvantages:

 Complex structure (yaw system, tower).

 Needs to be pointed into the wind.
 Installation and maintenance are difficult at height.

Applications:

 Utility-scale wind farms (onshore and offshore).

2. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWTs)

Definition:
These turbines have a rotor shaft aligned perpendicular to the ground, and the blades rotate
around a vertical axis.

Key Features:

 Wind direction does not affect operation (no yaw needed).

 Generator and gearbox can be located at the ground level.

Advantages:

 Can accept wind from any direction.

 Easier maintenance (components near ground level).
 Suitable for urban and low-wind areas.

Disadvantages:

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 Lower efficiency than HAWTs.

 Difficult self-starting (especially Darrieus type).
 Higher mechanical stress on blades.

Applications:

 Small-scale, residential, or rooftop installations.

 Urban or off-grid energy systems.

Comparison Table
Feature HAWT VAWT
Axis orientation Horizontal Vertical
Wind direction Needs alignment Works in all directions
Efficiency High Moderate to low
Maintenance access Difficult (height) Easier (ground level)
Typical use Large-scale generation Small-scale or urban use

Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT)

HAWT's have emerged as the most successful type of turbines. These are being used for
commercial energy generation in many parts of the world. Their theoretical basis is well
researched and sufficient field experience is available with them.
1. Main Components
The constructional details of most common, three-blade rotor, horizontal axis wind turbine are
shown in Fig. 7.18. Main parts are as follows:
(a) Turbine Blades Turbine blades are made of high-density wood or glass fiber and
epoxy composites. They have airfoil type cross-section. The blades are slightly
twisted from the outer tip to the root to reduce the tendency to stall. In addition to
centrifugal force and fatigue due to continuous vibrations there are many extraneous
forces arising from wind turbulence, gust, gravitational forces and directional
changes in the wind, etc. All these factors are to be taken care off at the designing
stage. Diameter of a typical, MW range, modern rotor may be of the order of 100 m.
(b) Hub The central solid portion of the rotor wheel is known as hub. All blades ate
attached to the hub. Mechanism for pitch angle control is also provided inside the
hub.
(c) Nacelle The term nacelle is derived from the name for housing containing the
engines of an aircraft. The rotor is attached to nacelle, mounted at the top of a tower.
It contains rotor brakes, gearbox, generator and electrical switchgear and control.
Brakes are used to stop the rotor when power generation is not desired. Gearbox
steps up the shaft rpm to suit the generator. Protection and control functions are
provided by switchgear and control block. The generated electrical power is
conducted to ground terminals through a cable.

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(a) Yaw Control Mechanism The mechanism to adjust the nacelle around vertical axis
to keep it facing the wind is provided at the base of nacelle.
(b) Tower supports nacelle and rotor. For medium and large sized turbines, the tower
is slightly taller than the rotor diameter. In case of small sized turbine, the tower is
much larger than the rotor diameter as the air is erratic at lower heights. Both steel
and concrete towers are being used. The construction can be either tubular or lattice
type.
(c) The tower vibrations and resulting fatigue cycles under wind speed fluctuations are
avoided by careful design. This requires avoidance of all resonance frequencies of
tower, the rotor and the nacelle from the wind fluctuation frequencies.
Upwind and Downwind Machines
In upwind machine, rotor is located upwind (in front) of the tower whereas in
downwind machine, the rotor is located downwind of (behind) the tower as shown in
Figure. Both types have certain benefits. Downwind machine allows the use of free w
system (in low rating machines).

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It also allows the blades to deflect away from the tower when loaded.
However, it suffers from wind shadow effects of the tower on the blades as they pass
through tower's wake, in a region of separated flow. For a high solidity tower with
limited rotor overhang, the wind speed might be effectively reduced to zero causing
severe impulsive load of periodic nature. This may be very dangerous as it may excite
any natural mode of the systems if that lies near a rotor harmonic.

Yaw Control System

Adjusting the nacelle about a vertical axis to bring the rotor facing the wind is known as yaw
control. The yaw control system continuously orients the rotor in the direction of wind. For
localities with prevailing wind in one direction only, the rotor can be in a fixed orientation. Such
a machine is said to be yaw fixed.

Most wind turbines, however, are yaw active. In small wind turbines, a tail vane is used for
passive yaw control. In large turbines, however, an active yaw control with power steering and
a wind direction sensor is used to maintain the orientation.
Pitch Control System
Pitch of a blade is controlled by rotating it from its root, where it is connected to the hub, as shown in
the Figure. Pitch control mechanism is provided through the hub using a hydraulic jack in the nacelle.
The control system continuously adjusts the pitch to obtain optimal performance. In modern machines,
pitch control is incorporated by controlling only the outer 20 per cent length of the blade (i.e., tip),
keeping the remaining part of the blade fixed.

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Vertical Axis Wind Turbine (VAWT)

VAWTS are in the development stage, and many models are undergoing field trials. Main
attractions of a VAWT are:
(i) It can accept wind from any direction, eliminating the need for yaw control.
(ii) Gearbox, generator, etc., are located on the ground, thus eliminating the heavy
nacelle at the top of the tower. This simplifies the design and installation of the whole
structure, including a tower.
(iii) The inspection and maintenance also get easier and
(iv) It also reduces the overall cost.
1. Main Components
The constructional details of a vertical axis wind turbine (Darrieus type rotor) are shown
in the Figure. The details of the main components are as follows:

(a) Tower (or Rotor Shaft) The tower is a hollow vertical rotor shaft, which rotates
freely about vertical axis between top and bottom bearings. It is installed above a
support structure. In the absence of any load at the top, a very strong tower is not
required, which greatly simplifies its design. The upper part of the tower is supported
by guy ropes. The height of the tower of a large turbine is around 100 m.

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(b) Blades It has two or three thin, curved blades shaped like an eggbeater in profile,
with blades curved in a form that minimizes the bending stress caused by centrifugal
forces-the so-called "Troposkien' profile. The blades have airfoil cross- section with
constant chord length. The pitch of the blades cannot be changed. The diameter of the
rotor is slightly less than the tower height. The first large (3.8 MW), Darrieus type,
Canadian machine has rotor height as 94 m and diameter as 65 m with a chord of 2.4 m.

(c) Support Structure Support structure is provided at the ground to support the weight
of the rotor. Gearbox, generator, brakes, electrical switchgear and controls are housed
within this structure.

Lift and Drag Type Machines

Wind turbines make use of either lift force or drag force predominantly to cause motion
and accordingly known as lift or drag type machines. In lift devices the ratio of lift to drag
forces may be as high as 30:1. For the drag design, the wind literally pushes the blades
out of the way. Drag devices are less efficient and turn slower than wind. They produce
high torque and thus are suitable for pumping applications. At high wind speeds they
spill wind instead of producing more energy. Thus they do not benefit from high energy
density available in wind.

The lift blade design employs the same principle that enables aeroplanes, kites and birds
to fly. The blade is essentially an air foil, or wing. When air flows past the blade, a wind
speed and pressure differential is created between the upper and lower blade surfaces.
The pressure at the lower surface is greater and thus acts to "lift" the blade. When blades
are attached to a central axis, like a wind turbine rotor, the lift is translated into
rotational motion. Lift-powered wind turbines have much higher rotational speed(shan
drag types and, therefore, well suited for generating electricity. Lift devices are more
efficient and turn faster than wind. They are able to benefit from high power densities
available in strong winds. The ratio of power extracted from wind by a lift device to that
of a drag device is usually greater than 3:1 for the same swept area. Lift-type rotors often
use tapered and/or twisted blades to reduce bending strains and improve the stalling
performance.

Horizontal Axis versus Vertical Axis Turbines

Most wind turbines, used at present are of horizontal axis type. They have been well
researched and have gone through extensive field trial. As a result, well-established
technology is available for HAWTS. Some advantages of VAWT have recently generated
considerable interest in this type of turbine. These are:
(i) it can accept wind from any direction without adjustment, which avoids the
cost and complexity of yaw orientation system,
(ii) gearing and generators, etc., are located at ground level, which simplifies the
design of tower, the installation and subsequent inspection and maintenance
and
(iii) also they are less costly as compared to HAWTS.

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The principal disadvantages of VAWT's are:

(i) many vertical axis machines have suffered from fatigue arising from
numerous natural resonances in the structure,
(ii) rotational torque from the wind varies periodically within each cycle, and
thus unwanted power periodicities appear at the output,
(iii) it normally requires guy ropes attached to the top for support, which could limit
its applications particularly for offshore sites,
(iv) it is noisier than HAWT,
(v) as wind speed increases significantly with height, for the same tower height
HAWT captures more power than VAWT
(vi) the technology is under development stage and far less is known about them
as compared to HAWTS.

Wind Resource Assessment and Site Selection for Wind Power Plants

Wind resource assessment and proper site selection are critical steps in the planning and
development of wind power plants. These steps ensure economic viability, efficiency, and
longevity of the project.

1. Purpose of Wind Resource Assessment

 To estimate the available wind energy at a specific location.

 To determine the suitability of the site for wind power generation.
 To calculate the capacity factor and annual energy production (AEP).
 To select the optimal turbine model and hub height.

2. Key Parameters Measured

1. Wind Speed (most crucial)

o Measured at different heights (usually 10m, 30m, 50m, and 80m).
o Power output increases with the cube of wind speed (P ∝ V³).
2. Wind Direction
o Helps in turbine alignment and optimizing turbine layout.
3. Turbulence Intensity
o Affects turbine fatigue and lifespan.
4. Air Density
o Depends on altitude and temperature; affects energy output.
5. Wind Shear
o Vertical change in wind speed; used to extrapolate wind speed at hub height.

3. Tools and Methods for Assessment

 Anemometer Towers (Met Masts):

o Installed for 1–2 years.
o Collect wind speed, direction, temperature, and pressure.
 LIDAR (Light Detection and Ranging) and SODAR (Sonic Detection and Ranging):
o Remote sensing devices for vertical wind profiling.
 Wind Atlas Data:

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oPre-existing data from government or global sources.

oUseful for initial screening.
 CComputational Models:
o Software like WAsP, WindPRO, and OpenWind simulate wind flow.

4. Site Selection Criteria

1. Wind Resource Availability

o Annual mean wind speed should ideally be > 6 m/s at hub height.
2. Topography
o Open plains, coastal areas, and ridges are preferred.
o Avoid areas with obstructions (trees, buildings) causing turbulence.
3. Land Availability
o Sufficient area for turbine spacing (typically 5–9 rotor diameters apart).
o Easy access for construction and maintenance.
4. Proximity to Grid
o Closer to substations and transmission lines reduces connection cost.
5. Environmental Considerations
o Avoid sites with sensitive ecosystems or endangered wildlife.
o Conduct Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA).
6. Socio-Economic Factors
o Community acceptance, land ownership, and legal clearances.
o Avoid noise-sensitive or heavily populated zones.
7. Accessibility
o Good road connectivity for transporting large turbine parts.

5. Wind Farm Layout Considerations

 Spacing between turbines to avoid wake losses.

 Orientation based on prevailing wind direction.
 Terrain modeling to optimize placement and minimize turbulence.

6. Duration of Data Collection

 Ideally, 12 months or more for accuracy.

 Short-term measurements can be adjusted using long-term reference data (e.g., satellite data
or nearby weather stations).

7. Output of the Assessment

 Wind speed distribution (Weibull distribution).

 Wind rose: graphical representation of wind direction and speed frequency.
 Energy production estimates.
 Turbine suitability report.

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Wind Farm Layout Optimization and Wake Effects

1. Introduction

 Wind farm layout optimization aims to determine the best positions of wind turbines within a
farm area to maximize energy production and minimize losses, especially due to wake
effects.
 Wake effect: A phenomenon where the wind speed decreases and turbulence increases behind
a wind turbine, reducing the performance of downstream turbines.

2. Objectives of Layout Optimization

 Maximize Annual Energy Production (AEP)

 Minimize Levelized Cost of Energy (LCOE)
 Avoid excessive wake losses
 Ensure ease of maintenance and access
 Comply with land use, environmental, and safety regulations

3. Factors Affecting Layout Design

a. Turbine Spacing

 Typical range: 3–5 rotor diameters (D) crosswind, 5–9D downwind

 Closer spacing increases wake losses but reduces land use

b. Wind Resource Characteristics

 Wind direction frequency (wind rose), speed variation

 Turbines should be aligned based on prevailing wind directions

c. Topography and Land Constraints

 Hills, valleys, buildings affect wind flow

 Turbines may need staggered placement for optimal exposure

d. Environmental and Noise Constraints

 Buffer zones for wildlife, habitats, noise-sensitive areas

4. Wake Effects
a. Definition

 Turbines extract kinetic energy from wind; the downstream airflow becomes slower and more
turbulent—called the wake.

b. Wake Loss Impact

 Can reduce energy production by 10%–20% or more in poorly optimized farms

 Leads to increased fatigue loads on downstream turbines

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5. Key Constraints in Optimization

 Minimum separation distances (to avoid excessive wake loss)

 Land boundary constraints
 Turbine count or capacity constraints
 Access road and cable length minimization

6. Performance Metrics

 Energy Yield (kWh/year)

 Capacity Factor
 Wake Loss Percentage
 Cost per kWh
 Efficiency improvement over initial layout

Grid Integration and Power System Considerations for Wind Power Plants:

Grid Integration and Power System Considerations for Wind Power Plants

Integrating wind power plants into the electrical grid involves several technical, operational, and
economic challenges. Unlike conventional power generation systems that produce stable and
predictable outputs, wind energy is variable and partially unpredictable. Therefore, special
considerations are required to maintain grid stability, power quality, and efficient energy dispatch.

Variability and Intermittency of Wind Power

One of the primary concerns with wind energy is its intermittent nature. Wind speed fluctuates over
time, and so does the power output from wind turbines. This variability can create imbalances in the
power system if not properly managed. To mitigate these effects, grid operators must incorporate
forecasting tools to predict wind availability and adjust other generation sources accordingly. Accurate
forecasting reduces the need for excessive spinning reserves and improves the reliability of the power
system.

Voltage and Frequency Control

In conventional power plants, synchronous generators help in maintaining system voltage and
frequency. Wind turbines, especially those with asynchronous generators, do not inherently support
voltage and frequency regulation. To address this, modern wind power plants use power electronics
like inverters and converters to help in reactive power control and voltage stabilization. Grid codes
often require wind farms to contribute to frequency regulation by adjusting output or staying
connected during frequency disturbances.

Fault Ride-Through Capability

When a disturbance like a short circuit occurs on the grid, traditional wind turbines would disconnect
to protect themselves. However, modern grid codes require wind turbines to have "fault ride-through"
capability, meaning they must stay connected during grid faults and support recovery. This is essential
to avoid widespread disconnections that could destabilize the grid during disturbances.

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Grid Stability and Inertia

Synchronous generators provide inertia to the power system, helping resist sudden changes in
frequency. Wind turbines, particularly those connected via power electronics (like DFIGs or full-
converter systems), do not naturally provide inertia. This reduced system inertia can make the grid
more sensitive to sudden load changes or generation losses. Solutions such as synthetic inertia
(emulated through advanced control systems) are used to improve grid stability.

Power Quality Issues

Wind power plants can introduce power quality problems such as harmonics, voltage fluctuations, and
flicker, especially when connected to weak grids. Harmonics are caused by non-linear characteristics
of power electronic devices, while voltage flicker can result from fluctuating wind speeds. To minimize
these issues, wind farms are equipped with filters, voltage regulators, and reactive power
compensation equipment.

Grid Code Compliance

Wind power plants must meet the technical requirements specified by grid codes. These codes define
standards for voltage control, frequency regulation, fault response, and communication protocols.
Compliance ensures that wind farms do not negatively impact grid reliability and can support grid
operations during both normal and emergency conditions. Grid codes vary from country to country,
and wind power developers must design their systems accordingly.

Transmission Infrastructure and Location Challenges

Wind farms are often located in remote or offshore areas where wind resources are abundant but
transmission infrastructure is limited. This requires investment in new transmission lines or
substations to evacuate power to the load centers. High-voltage transmission systems, such as HVDC
(High Voltage Direct Current), are sometimes used to efficiently transmit power over long distances,
particularly for offshore wind farms.

Integration with Energy Storage and Demand Response

To overcome the challenges posed by the variability of wind power, integration with energy storage
systems is becoming increasingly important. Batteries, pumped hydro, and other storage methods can
absorb excess energy during high wind periods and release it during low wind periods. Additionally,
demand response strategies—where consumers adjust their usage based on grid conditions—can help
balance supply and demand more effectively.

Monitoring and Communication Systems

Wind power plants are integrated with SCADA (Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition) systems to
monitor performance, detect faults, and coordinate with grid operators. These systems provide real-
time data on power output, voltage, frequency, and component status, enabling quick responses to
operational issues and enhancing reliability.

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Geothermal Energy Conversion: Principle of Working

1. Introduction:
Geothermal energy is the heat stored beneath the Earth’s surface. It can be harnessed to generate
electricity or for direct heating purposes. The energy originates mainly from the decay of radioactive
elements in the Earth's core and from the residual heat of planetary formation.

2. Basic Principle:
The principle of geothermal energy conversion is based on the extraction of heat from hot rocks or
underground reservoirs of steam and hot water, and converting this thermal energy into
mechanical energy, which is then used to generate electricity.

3. Key Steps in the Working:

 Step 1: Heat Extraction

o Deep wells are drilled into geothermal reservoirs located beneath the Earth’s surface.
o Hot water or steam is brought to the surface through production wells.
 Step 2: Energy Conversion
o The high-pressure steam or hot water is passed through a turbine.
o The steam rotates the turbine, which is connected to an electric generator.
o The mechanical energy of the rotating turbine is converted into electrical energy.
 Step 3: Cooling and Reinjection
o After energy extraction, the used geothermal fluid (usually water) is cooled.
o This water is re-injected back into the Earth through injection wells to maintain
reservoir pressure and ensure sustainability.

4. Types of Geothermal Power Plants:

 Dry Steam Plant:

o Uses steam directly from a geothermal reservoir to turn turbines.
 Flash Steam Plant:
o High-pressure hot water is depressurized (“flashed”) into steam to drive turbines.
 Binary Cycle Plant:
o Uses moderately hot geothermal water to heat a secondary fluid with a lower boiling
point in a heat exchanger; the vaporized secondary fluid drives the turbine.

5. Summary of Working Principle:

Geothermal energy conversion works by bringing hot fluids or steam from underground, using
the heat to rotate turbines, and generating electricity. After use, the fluid is returned underground
to preserve the resource.

Dry Steam (Vapour Dominated) Plants:

These plants are the oldest and most direct type, using naturally occurring dry steam (steam
with no water droplets) to drive Dry steam field at Larderello is especially ideal because its wells
produce virtually pure steam with no water.
The layout of vapour-dominated system is shown in Figure. The steam is extracted from the well
where it is nearly saturated.

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The extracted steam is then cleaned in centrifugal Separator to remove solid matter.
While passing through the well, as well as centrifugal separator the pressure drops, which
causes it to slightly super heat. The steam is then supplied to a turbine at temperature of about
165o c and pressure of about 7.8 atm. (the temperature and pressure in the reservoir are higher)
and allowed to expand. The exhaust steam of turbine is condensed in direct contact condenser,
in which the steam is condensed by direct contact with cooling water. The resulting warm water
is circulated and cooled in cooling tower and returned to the condenser. The condensation of
steam continuously increases the volume of cooling water. Excess water is reinjected at some
distance deep into the ground for disposal. 'The non- condensable gases are removed from the
condenser by steam jet ejection.
turbines and generate electricity.
Dry steam fields occur when the pressure is not much above the atmospheric pressure and the
temperature is high. Water boils underground and generates steam. 'Ihe most important known
dry steam fields are: (a) "The geysers" regions in California, which may be the largest, (b) the
Larderello and some smaller areas in Italy and (c) a small field (or fields) at Matsukawa, Japan.

The

Figure: Dry Steam Geothermal power plants

Flash Steam Plant – Explanation Format Notes

Definition:
A Flash Steam Plant is a type of geothermal power plant that generates electricity by using high-
pressure hot water from deep underground geothermal reservoirs.

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As the water rises to the surface, it flashes (boils rapidly) into steam due to a sudden drop in pressure.
This steam is then used to drive turbines connected to electrical generators.

Working Principle:

1. Hot Water Extraction:

High-pressure geothermal water (typically above 180°C) is pumped from deep wells to the
surface.
2. Flashing Process:
As the hot water reaches the surface, it enters a separator or flash tank where the pressure is
suddenly reduced.
This causes part of the water to rapidly vaporize or "flash" into steam.
3. Steam Utilization:
The separated steam is directed to a steam turbine, which converts the thermal energy into
mechanical energy.
4. Electricity Generation:
The turbine is connected to a generator, producing electricity.
5. Condensation and Re-injection:
After expanding through the turbine, the steam is condensed into water in a condenser and
re-injected back into the geothermal reservoir to maintain pressure and sustainability.

Components of a Flash Steam Plant:

 Production Well – Brings hot water to the surface

 Flash Tank/Separator – Converts hot water to steam by pressure drop
 Steam Turbine – Rotates with steam to generate mechanical energy
 Generator – Converts mechanical energy into electrical energy
 Condenser – Cools and condenses used steam
 Injection Well – Returns cooled water back underground

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Advantages:

 High thermal efficiency for high-temperature geothermal resources

 Proven and widely used technology
 Environmentally friendly with low emissions
 Re-injection helps sustain the geothermal resource

Disadvantages:

 Requires high-temperature geothermal reservoirs

 Possibility of scaling and corrosion from mineral-rich fluids
 Drilling costs are high
 Not suitable for low-temperature geothermal sources

Applications:

 Used in countries with volcanic or tectonic activity (e.g., Iceland, Philippines, USA, New
Zealand)
 Suitable for base-load electricity supply in geothermal regions

Binary Cycle Plants – Explanation Notes

Definition:

A Binary Cycle Geothermal Plant is a type of geothermal power plant that uses two different fluids—
one from the geothermal reservoir (primary fluid) and another with a lower boiling point (secondary
or working fluid)—to generate electricity.

Working Principle:

 The geothermal fluid (usually hot water or brine) is extracted from underground reservoirs at
moderate temperatures (typically between 100°C and 170°C).

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 Instead of driving the turbine directly, the geothermal fluid passes through a heat exchanger,
where it transfers its heat to the working fluid (commonly isobutane, isopentane, or other
organic fluids).
 The working fluid has a low boiling point and vaporizes easily. This vapor is then used to drive
a turbine-generator to produce electricity.
 After transferring heat, the geothermal fluid is re-injected back into the ground.
 The working fluid is condensed and recycled back into the heat exchanger in a closed loop.

Main Components:

1. Production well – extracts geothermal fluid.

2. Heat exchanger – transfers heat from geothermal fluid to the working fluid.
3. Working fluid loop – contains organic fluid with a low boiling point.
4. Turbine-generator – converts vapor pressure into electricity.
5. Condenser – cools and condenses the vapor back into liquid.
6. Injection well – returns used geothermal fluid to the reservoir.

Advantages:

 Suitable for low to moderate temperature geothermal resources.

 No direct contact between geothermal fluid and turbine parts, reducing corrosion and scaling.
 Environmentally friendly – minimal emissions.
 Closed-loop system – conserves fluids and minimizes environmental impact.

Disadvantages:

 Lower thermal efficiency compared to flash steam or dry steam plants.

 Requires additional working fluid, which may be flammable or expensive.
 Slightly higher capital cost due to additional equipment like heat exchangers and secondary
fluid systems.

Applications:

 Widely used in regions with moderate geothermal temperatures.

 Common in countries like the USA (Nevada), Turkey, and Germany.

Geothermal Power Plants in the World

Major Geothermal Countries

Country Installed Capacity (Approx., 2024) Remarks
USA ~3,700 MW Largest in the world; major site: The Geysers, California
Indonesia ~2,400 MW Rich volcanic activity; fast-growing capacity
Philippines ~1,900 MW One of the earliest adopters in Asia
Turkey ~1,700 MW Rapid development in recent years
New Zealand ~1,000 MW Major plants: Wairakei, Ohaaki
Kenya ~950 MW Leading geothermal producer in Africa

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Famous Geothermal Power Plants

1. The Geysers (USA)

o Location: California
o Type: Dry Steam
o Largest complex globally (~1,500 MW capacity)
2. Larderello (Italy)
o World's first geothermal plant (operational since 1913)
o Historical significance
3. Cerro Prieto (Mexico)
o One of the largest in Latin America
o Flash steam system
4. Nesjavellir & Hellisheiði (Iceland)
o Also provide district heating
o Binary + flash systems used
5. Wayang Windu (Indonesia)
o Located in Java
o Over 200 MW capacity

Geographical Suitability

 Ideal locations: Tectonic plate boundaries, volcanic zones, and geysers

 Notable geothermal regions:
o Ring of Fire (Pacific Ocean border countries)
o East African Rift Valley
o Iceland (Mid-Atlantic Ridge)

Advantages of Geothermal Plants

 Renewable and sustainable

 Low carbon emissions
 High capacity factor (>90%)
 Small land footprint

Problems Associated with Geothermal Energy Conversion

Geothermal energy is a promising renewable energy source, but its conversion into usable electricity
or heat is not free from challenges. The key problems can be broadly classified into technical,
environmental, economic, and site-specific issues.

1. Resource Depletion and Sustainability

 Explanation: Over-extraction of geothermal fluids can lead to a drop in underground pressure,

causing a decline in temperature and steam output over time.
 Impact: This reduces the efficiency of power plants and may require reinjection of fluids to
maintain reservoir pressure.
 Example: The Geysers in California has seen a drop in output due to resource depletion.

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2. Corrosion and Scaling

 Explanation: Geothermal fluids often contain dissolved minerals, gases, and salts such as
silica, calcium carbonate, or hydrogen sulfide.
 Problems Caused:
o Scaling: Minerals precipitate and block pipes, turbines, and heat exchangers.
o Corrosion: Acidic fluids and gases can corrode metal surfaces, reducing equipment life.
 Mitigation: Use of corrosion-resistant materials and chemical inhibitors.

3. Environmental Concerns

 a. Land Subsidence:
o Explanation: Continuous extraction of geothermal fluids without proper reinjection
can cause the ground level to sink, known as subsidence.
 b. Gas Emissions:
o Explanation: Although geothermal energy is cleaner than fossil fuels, it can release
harmful gases like hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), carbon dioxide (CO₂), and methane
(CH₄).
 c. Thermal Pollution:
o Explanation: Waste heat released into nearby water bodies or land can affect local
ecosystems.
 d. Water Contamination:
o Explanation: Improper disposal of geothermal brine can contaminate surface or
groundwater.

4. High Initial Capital Cost

 Explanation: Exploration, drilling, and plant installation require heavy investment, often
without guaranteed success.
 Reason: Drilling deep wells is expensive and may not always result in productive sites.

5. Site-Specific Limitations

 Explanation: Geothermal energy is location-specific. It is viable only in regions with active

geothermal activity (e.g., volcanic or tectonic zones).
 Challenge: Not suitable for all countries or regions, limiting its widespread application.

6. Seismic Risk (Induced Earthquakes)

 Explanation: Deep drilling and reinjection of water can trigger microseismic events or even
minor earthquakes.
 Example: Enhanced Geothermal Systems (EGS) projects have been linked to induced seismicity
in Basel (Switzerland) and South Korea.

7. Limited Technology for Low-Temperature Resources

 Explanation: Many geothermal fields have low-temperature resources (<150°C), which are
not suitable for conventional steam turbines.
 Challenge: Requires binary cycle technology, which is still evolving and can be costly.

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Scope of Geothermal Energy

Geothermal energy refers to the heat energy stored beneath the Earth’s surface. This renewable energy
source can be harnessed for various purposes, including electricity generation, direct heating, and
industrial applications. The scope of geothermal energy is expanding due to the growing demand for
clean and sustainable energy sources, environmental concerns related to fossil fuels, and
advancements in drilling and extraction technologies.

Geothermal energy is considered reliable because it is not affected by weather conditions like solar or
wind energy. Its continuous availability makes it suitable for base-load power generation. Countries
with high geothermal potential (such as those located near tectonic plate boundaries) have already
made significant investments in this sector.

In addition to power generation, geothermal energy is widely used in direct applications such as space
heating, greenhouses, aquaculture, industrial drying, and spa tourism. Technological innovations,
including enhanced geothermal systems (EGS), are also expanding their usability in regions without
natural hydrothermal reservoirs.

Globally, geothermal energy plays a key role in reducing greenhouse gas emissions, supporting rural
development, and providing a decentralized power supply.

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