DELHI PUBLIC SCHOOL, BANGALORE- EAST
CHAPTER 4 - CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS
NOTES
Covalent Bonding
Difficulty of Carbon to Form a Stable Ion
To achieve the electronic configuration of the nearest noble gas, He, if the carbon atom loses four of its
valence electrons, a huge amount of energy is involved. C4+ ion hence formed will be highly unstable due to
the presence of six protons and two electrons.
If the carbon atom gains four electrons to achieve the nearest electronic configuration of the noble gas, Ne,
C4− ion will be formed. But again, a huge amount of energy is required. Moreover, in C4+ ion it is difficult
for 6 protons to hold 10 electrons. Hence, to satisfy its tetravalency, carbon shares all four of its valence
electrons and forms covalent bonds.
Ionic Bond
Ionic bonding involves the transfer of valence electron/s, primarily between a metal and a nonmetal. The
electrostatic attractions between the oppositely charged ions hold the compound together.
Ionic compounds:
1. Are usually crystalline solids (made of ions)
2. Have high melting and boiling points
3. Conduct electricity when melted
4. Are mostly soluble in water and polar solvents
Covalent Bond
A covalent bond is formed when pairs of electrons are shared between two atoms. It is primarily formed
between two same non-metallic atoms or between non-metallic atoms with similar electronegativity.
Lewis Dot Structure
Lewis structures are also known as Lewis dot structures or electron dot structures.
These are basically diagrams with the element’s symbol in the centre. The dots around it represent the
valence electrons of the element.
Covalent Bonding in H2, N2 and O2
Formation of a single bond in a hydrogen molecule:
Each hydrogen atom has a single electron in the valence shell. It requires one more to acquire the nearest
noble gas configuration (He).
Therefore, both the atoms share one electron each and form a single bond.
Formation of a double bond in an oxygen molecule:
Each oxygen atom has six electrons in the valence shell (2, 6). It requires two electrons to acquire the
nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both the atoms share two electrons each and form a double bond.
Formation of a triple bond in a nitrogen molecule:
Each nitrogen atom has five electrons in the valence shell (2, 5). It requires three electrons to acquire the
nearest noble gas configuration (Ne).
Therefore, both atoms share three electrons each and form a triple bond.
NOTE –
• A single bond is formed between two atoms when two electrons are shared between them, i.e., one
electron from each participating atom.
It is depicted by a single line between the two atoms.
• A double bond is formed between two atoms when four electrons are shared between them, i.e., one
pair of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by double lines between the two atoms.
• A triple bond is formed between two atoms when six electrons are shared between them, i.e.,
two pairs of electrons from each participating atom. It is depicted by triple lines between the two
atoms.
Covalent Bonding of N, O with H
• In ammonia (NH3), the three hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the nitrogen atom and
form three covalent bonds.
• In water (H2O), the two hydrogen atoms share one electron each with the oxygen atom and form two
covalent bonds.
Covalent Bonding in Carbon
A methane molecule (CH4) is formed when four electrons of carbon are shared with four hydrogen atom.
Versatile Nature of Carbon
Tetravalency, and Catenation The fact that carbon can form single, double, and triple bonds demonstrates its
versatility. It can also form chains, branching chains, and rings when joined to other carbon atoms.
Hydrogen, oxygen, carbon, and a few additional elements make up organic molecules. Organic compounds,
on the other hand, are significantly more numerous than inorganic compounds that do not form bonds.
Carbon is a chemical element with the atomic number 6 and the symbol C. It’s a versatile element that can
be found in a wide variety of chemical combinations. Carbon’s versatility is best appreciated through
properties like tetravalency and catenation.
• Tetravalency: Carbon has a valency of four so it is capable of bonding with four other atoms of
carbon or atoms of some other mono-valent element.
• Catenation: The property of carbon element due to which its atom can join one another to form
long carbon chains is called catenation.
M.P, B.P and Electrical Conductivity
Covalent compounds:
1. Are molecular compounds
2. Are gases, liquids or solids
3. Have weak intermolecular forces
4. Have low melting and boiling points
5. Are poor electrical conductors in all phases
6. Are mostly soluble in nonpolar liquids
ALLOTROPES OF CARBON
Saturated and Unsaturated Hydrocarbons
Saturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have all carbon-carbon single bonds. These are known as
alkanes. General formula = CnH2n+2 where n = 1, 2, 3, 4.…..
Unsaturated hydrocarbons: These hydrocarbons have at least one carbon-carbon double or triple bond.
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon double bond are called alkenes. General formula = CnH2n
where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Hydrocarbons with at least one carbon-carbon triple bond are called alkynes. General formula =
CnH2n−2 where n = 2, 3, 4…..
Electron dot structure of a saturated carbon compound Ethane
Electron dot structure of an unsaturated carbon compound Ethene
Formulae and Structures of Saturated Compounds of Carbon and Hydrogen
SATURATED UNSATURATED
No. of C atoms ALKANES ALKENES ALKYNES
CnH2n + 2 CnH2n CnH2n - 2
1 Methane CH4 - -
2 Ethane C2H6 Ethene C2 H4 Ethyne C2H2
3 Propane C3H8 Propene C3H6 Propyne C3H4
4 Butane C4H10 Butene C 4 H8 Butyne C4H6
5 Pentane C5H12 Pentene C5H10 Pentyne C5H8
6 Hexane C6H14 Hexene C6H12 Hexyne C6H10
Chains, Rings and Branches
On the basis of structures, the hydrocarbons can be in the form of straight chains, branched chains or rings
(cyclic compounds):
ISOMERISM
The carbon compounds having the same molecular formula and different physical or chemical
properties are knownas isomers and the phenomenon is known as isomerism.
Structural isomers: These are the compounds having identical molecular formulabut different structures. For
example, isomers of butane.
Eg:- Butane – C4H10 has 2 isomers - Normal butane and Iso butane
Pentane – C5H12 has 3 isomers.
Hexane – C6H14 has 5 isomers.
FUNCTIONAL GROUPS
Heteroatom and Functional Group:
• In hydrocarbon chain, one or more hydrogen atoms can be replaced by other atoms in accordance with
their valencies. The element that replaces hydrogen iscalled a heteroatom.
• These heteroatoms and the group containing them impart chemical properties tothe compound and hence
are called functional groups.
An atom or a group of atoms which decides the properties of a carbon compound is called a functional
group.
Classification of Functional Groups
(i) Hydroxyl group (-OH): All organic compounds containing -OH group are known as alcohols.
Forexample, Methanol (CH3OH), Ethanol (CH3−CH2−OH), etc.
(ii) Aldehyde group (-CHO): All organic compounds containing -CHO group are known as aldehydes.
Forexample, Methanal (HCHO), Ethanal (CH3CHO), etc.
(iii) Ketone group (-C=O): All organic compounds containing (-C=O) group flanked by two alkyl
groups are known as ketones. For example, Propanone (CH3COCH3), Butanone (CH3COCH2CH3), etc.
(iv) Carboxyl group (-COOH): All organic acids contain a carboxyl group (-COOH). Hence, they are also
called carboxylic acids.
For example, Ethanoic acid (CH3COOH), Propanoic acid (CH3CH2COOH), etc.
(v) Halogen group (F, CI, Br, I): The alkanes in which one or more than one hydrogen atom is substituted
by- X (F, CI, Br or I) are known as haloalkanes. For example, Chloromethane (CH3Cl), Bromomethane
(CH3Br), etc.
Alkyl group: The group formed by the removal of one hydrogen atom from an alkane molecule is called an
Alkyl group
Ex - Methyl group (CH3-) Ethyl group (C2H5-)
HOMOLOGOUS SERIES
Homologous series constitutes organic compounds with the same general formula, similar chemical
characteristics but different physical properties. The adjacent members differ in their molecular formula by
−CH2.
• It is a series of compounds in which the same functional group substitutes forhydrogen in a Carbon chain.
• For instance, the ALCOHOLS: CH3OH, C2H5OH, C3H7OH, C4H9OH.
• The successive member differs by –CH2-unit and 14 units of mass.
• The chemical properties are imparted by the functional group thus all members have similar chemical
properties. But the members have different physical properties.
• The physical properties vary among the members of homologous series dueto difference in their molecular
mass. Eg - Melting point and boiling point increases with increasing molecular mass.
Examples of homologous series
IUPAC Nomenclature
According to the Guidelines set by IUPAC, the nomenclature of compounds must follow these steps:
1. The Longest Chain Rule: The parent hydrocarbon must be identified and subsequently named. The
parent chain belonging to the compound in question is generally the longest chain of carbon atoms,
be it in the form of a straight chain or a chain of any other shape.
2. The Lowest Set of Locants: The carbon atoms belonging to the parent hydrocarbon chain must be
numbered using natural numbers and beginning from the end in which the lowest number is
assigned to the carbon atom which carries the substituents.
3. Multiple instances of the same substituent: Prefixes which indicate the total number of the same
substituent in the given organic compounds are given, such as di, tri, etc.
4. Naming of different substituents: In the organic compounds containing multiple substituents, the
corresponding substituents are arranged in alphabetical order of names in the IUPAC nomenclature
of organic compounds in question.
5. The naming of different substituents present at the same positions: In the scenario wherein two
differing substituent groups are present at the same position of the organic compound, the
substituents are named in ascending alphabetical order.
6. Naming Complex Substituents: Complex substituents of organic compounds having branched
structures must be named as substituted alkyl groups whereas the carbon which is attached to the
substituent group is numbered as one. These branched and complex substituents must be written in
brackets in the IUPAC nomenclature of the corresponding compounds.
The format of the IUPAC Name of the Compound can be written as: Locant + Prefix + Root + Locant +
Suffix
1. Root
The Word root indicates the total number of carbon atoms present in the longest carbon chain belonging to
the compound. For example, ‘Meth’ refers to a chain with 1 carbon atom and ‘Pent’ refers to a chain
with 5 carbon atoms.
2. Suffix
The suffix in IUPAC nomenclature is usually a functional group belonging to the molecule which follows
the root of the name. It can be further divided into the following types.
• A Primary Suffix, which is written immediately after the word root as in the case of alkanes, where
the suffix is ‘ane’.
• A Secondary Suffix, which is generally written after the primary suffix is written. For example,
compounds having an alkane and alcohol group attached to them will be named as alkanol, with ‘ol’
being the secondary suffix for the alcohol group.
In accordance with these norms, the suffix of a compound can be written as a part of the IUPAC name of
the given compound.
3. Prefix
Prefixes are added prior to the root of the compounds IUPAC nomenclature. Prefixes are very useful since
they indicate the presence of side chains or substituent groups in the given organic molecule. These prefixes
also offer insight into the cyclic or acyclic natures of the compounds in question.
• Primary Prefixes Indicate the cyclic or acyclic nature of the given compound. The prefix ‘cyclo’ is
used for cyclic compounds, for example.
• Secondary Prefixes Indicate the presence of side chains or substituent groups. An example of these
types of prefixes would be the ‘CH3’ group, which is called the methyl group.
The IUPAC nomenclature of alkanes, alkenes, and alkynes are discussed in the subsections below.
1. Alkanes
The General formula of alkanes corresponds to CnH2n+2
The suffix ‘ane’ is generally used to describe alkanes. Examples for the nomenclature of alkanes as per
IUPAC guidelines include methane for the compound CH4 and Butane for the compound C4H10
2. Alkenes
The General formula of alkenes is described as CnH2n
The suffix ‘ene’ is used to describe alkenes via IUPAC norms. Examples for the nomenclature of alkenes
include the name ethene used to describe the compound given by C2H4 and Propene used to describe the
compound given by C3H6
3. Alkynes
The General formula of alkynes is CnH2n-2
The suffix ‘yne’ is generally used to describe alkynes. An example of the IUPAC nomenclature of alkynes
is: ethyne used to describe the compound given by C2H2
Nomenclature of compounds containing functional group
Electron dot structure of few compounds
Chloromethane
Ethanoic acid
Propanone Propanal
CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF CARBON COMPOUNDS
1. Combustion-Burning in oxygen
• Gives oxides
• Exothermic-produces heat and light
• Saturated compounds give a clean flame while unsaturated compounds give sooty flame
• In the presenceof limited oxygen, even saturated hydrocarbons give smoky flame.
2. Oxidation
• Addition of oxygen
• Carbon compounds like alcohols are oxidized to carboxylic acids on heating with oxidizing agents like
alkaline Potassium permanganate or acidic Potassium dichromate
• Eg – Ethanol oxidized to ethanoic acid
3. Addition Reaction
• The reactions in which two molecules react to form a single product having all the atoms of the
combiningmolecules are called addition reactions.
• Unsaturated hydrocarbons undergo addition reaction with hydrogen in presence of catalyst such as
Palladium or Nickel to form saturated hydrocarbons. This process is called Hydrogenation.
• This reaction is used in the hydrogenation of unsaturated fats like vegetable oils to saturated fats (eg.
Vanaspati ghee/ Dalda)
• Ethene undergoes addition reaction in the presence of Hydrogen to form ethane
4. Substitution reactions
• An atom or a group replaces another atom or group in a compound
• Saturated hydrocarbons undergo substitution reaction with halogens to form substitution products.
• Eg – Methane undergoes substitution reaction with chlorine in the presence of sunlight to form substitution
products.
SOME IMPORTANT CARBON COMPOUNDS
Ethanol (ethyl alcohol) - C2H5OH
Properties
1. Ethanol is a colourless liquid with a pleasant smell and burning taste.
2. It is soluble in water.
3. It is neutral to litmus.
4. It is a nonconductor of electricity (it does not contain ions)
5. Ethanol reacts with sodium to form sodium ethoxide and hydrogen.
2C2H5OH + 2Na 2C2H5ONa + H2
4. Ethanol reacts with hot conc. H2SO4 to form ethene and water. Conc. H2SO4 is a dehydrating agent and
removes water from ethanol.
conc. H2SO4
C2H5OH C2H4 + H2O
Uses :-
i) Ethanol is the active ingredient of all alcoholic drinks.
ii) It is used as a solvent.
iii) It is used for making medicines like tincture iodine, cough syrups, tonics etc.
How Do Alcohols Affect Human Beings?
(i) If ethanol is mixed with CH3OH and consumed, it causes serious poisoning and loss of eyesight.
(ii) It causes addiction, damages the liver if taken in excess.
(iii) High consumption of ethanol may even cause death.
Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) - CH3COOH
Properties
1. Ethanoic acid is a colourless liquid with a pungent smell and sour taste.
2. It is soluble in water.
3. A solution of 5% to 8% ethanoic acid in water is called Vinegar.
4. Esterification :-
• Ethanoic acid reacts with ethanol to form the ester ethyl ethanoate in the presence of conc. H2SO4.
conc.H2SO4
CH3COOH + C2H5OH CH3COOC2H5 + H2O
• The reaction between carboxylic acid and alcohol to form an ester (fruit smelling substances) is called
Esterification.
5. Saponification :-
• When an ester reacts with sodium hydroxide solution, the sodium salt of the carboxylic acid and the parent
alcohol are formed. This reaction is called Saponification.
• Eg- Ethyl ethanoate reacts with sodium hydroxide to form sodium acetate and ethanol.
CH3COOC2H5 + NaOH CH3COONa + C2H5OH
6. Ethanoic acid reacts with bases to form salt and water.
CH3COOH + NaOH CH3COONa + H2O
7. Ethanoic acid reacts with carbonates and hydrogen carbonates to form salt, water and
carbon dioxide.
2CH3COOH + Na2CO3 2CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
CH3COOH + NaHCO3 CH3COONa + H2O + CO2
SOAPS AND DETERGENTS
Soaps are long chain sodium or potassium salts of carboxylic acids (fatty acids).
Eg:- Sodium stearate – C17H35COONa
The soap molecule is generally represented as RCOONa, where R = non-ionic hydrocarbon group and
−COO−Na+ ionic group. When oil or fat of vegetable or animal origin is treated with a concentrated
sodium or potassium hydroxide solution, hydrolysis of fat takes place; soap and glycerol are formed.
This alkaline hydrolysis of oils and fats is commonly known as saponification.
Structure of soap molecule -
A soap molecule has two parts:
a long hydrocarbon part which is hydrophobic (water repelling) and soluble in oil and grease and
a short ionic part which is hydrophyllic (water attracting) and insoluble in oil and grease.
(Water repelling) (Water attracting)
Cleansing action of soap :-
When soap is dissolved in water it forms spherical structures called micelles. In each micelle the soap molecules
are arranged radially such that the HC part is towards the centre and the ionic part is towards the outside. The
HC part dissolves the dirt, oil and grease and forms an emulsion at the centre of the micelles which can be
washed away by water.
When soap is added to water, the soap molecules uniquely orient themselves to form spherical shape
micelles.
The non-polar hydrophobic part or tail of the soap molecules attracts the dirt or oil part of the fabric, while
the polar hydrophilic part or head,(−COO−Na+, remains attracted to water molecules.
he agitation or scrubbing of the fabric helps the micelles to carry the oil or dirt particles and detach them
from the fibres of the fabric.
Detergents -
• Detergents are ammonium or sulphonate salts of long chain carboxylic acids.
• Soaps do not wash well with hard water because they form insoluble precipitates of calcium and magnesium
salts in hard water.
• Detergents wash well even with hard water because they do not form insoluble precipitates with calcium and
magnesium ions in hard water.
• Detergents are used to make shampoos and products for cleaning clothes.
Differences between soaps and detergents
Soaps Detergents
1. Soaps are sodium salts of Detergents are sodium salts of
fatty acids. sulphonic acids.
2. Soaps clean well in soft water but do Detergents clean well with both hard and
not clean well in hard water. soft water
3. Soaps do not clean as well as detergents Detergents clean better than soaps
4. Soaps are biodegradable and do not Some detergents are non biodegradable
cause pollution and cause pollution
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