Constitutive relations

• Pulling the rod made of different materials

using same force.
• What will happen to deformation in the rod??
• How to bring the material information into
our calculations or
• How to relate induced stress with
deformation (strain)
• Relations that characterize the physical
properties of materials are called constitutive
equations e.g. Hooke’s Law
• Endless variety of materials and loadings P
   stress
• Axial loading A

  normal strain
L
 Constitutive relations

• Another view point

• Number of unknowns at any point
– 3 displacemnets, 6 stress and 6 strain components
• Number of equations
– 3 equilibrium equations
– 3 strain – disp
– 3 compatibility
• Additional field equations are required
• What is missing?
 Stress-strain test

• For a specific material, stress can be related to strain by

using experimental methods to determine the stress–
strain diagram
• One of the most important tests to perform in this regard
is the tension or compression test
• Used primarily to determine the relationship between
the average normal stress and average normal strain in
many engineering materials such as metals, ceramics,
polymers, and composites
• To perform a tension or compression test a specimen of
the material is made into a “standard” shape and size
 Stress-strain test

• Sample geometry (13 mm)

• Gauge length
– Original length
• Deformation (50 mm)
Gauge length

• Strain gauge
– To measure change in length or strain

Strain gauge
 Stress-strain test

• The sample is stressed and the variation

of force (stress) is recorded again
deformation or displacement (strain) of
upper crosshead

• Two ways in which the above variation

can be plotted
– Conventional or engineering stress-strain
– True stress-strain
 Stress-strain test

• Nominal or engineering stress

– Stress calculated based on original area

• Nominal or engineering strain

– Strain calculated based on original gauge length

• In reality the area and length of specimen kept changing

during loading (or deformation)

Underestimation of induced stress.

 Stress-strain test

• If we calculate stress and strain based on instantaneous

area and length, the resulting quantities are called true
stress-strain as they represent true values of these
parameters
• True stress

• True strain
 Stress-strain plot

• General features
Aluminium- Tensile
Aluminium- Tensile

10000
140

120
8000

100

Stress (N/mm2)
6000
Force (N)

80

60
4000

40

2000
20

0
0 0.00 0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25
0 3 5 8 10 13 15 18 20 23 25
Strain
Position (mm)
 Stress-strain curve

• Different regions in
stress-strain plot
• Conventional vs true
stress-strain
 Ductile materials

• Typical stress-strain plot

• Significant plastic deformation and energy absorption (toughness)

before fracture
• Necking is a characteristic feature of ductile materials
 Ductile materials

• Measure of ductility

– Percentage elongation

– Percentage reduction in area

 Ductile materials

• For most metals a well defined yield point does not exist
• Yield strength is defined using offset method

• Offset strain - 0.2%

• Other values may also be used

 Brittle materials

• Little plastic deformation or energy absorption before

fracture

• Fractured surface is plane

 Hooke’s Law

• In the elastic limit, most materials exhibit linear

relationship between stress and strain

• Below the yield stress

  E
E  Youngs Modulus or
Modulus of Elasticity
Elastic resistance to axial deformation

• Strength is affected by alloying,

heat treating, and manufacturing
process but modulus of elasticity is
not.
 Hooke’s Law

• Modulus of elasticity E is one of the most important

mechanical property to determine generalized state of
stress and strain in the material
• E is the slope of linear part of stress-strain curve
• Hooke’s law is valid only in elastic region

• Unloading behavior
• E remains same during re-loading
 Tension and compression

• The properties of ductile materials are in general remain same

under tension and compression
• Brittle materials show improved properties under compression as
compared to tension e.g. grey cast iron
• In general we assume that the mechanical properties are same
under tension and compression
 Elastic vs plastic

• If the strain disappears when

the stress is removed, the
material is said to behave
elastically.
• The largest stress for which
this occurs is called the elastic
limit
• When the strain does not
return to zero after the stress
is removed, the material is
said to behave plastically
 Strain hardening

• On re-loading the stress-strain curve will follow the

original curve

• Yield strength of the material is improved – strain

hardening
Strain energy
 Strain energy

• Energy stored in the deforming body as a result of work

done by external forces
• Since the energy stored is related to strains in the
material, it is called strain energy
Force due to induced stress

Displacement along z axis Average force

External work

Strain energy density-

 Modulus of resilience

• Strain energy stored till the stress reach the proportional

limit
– Shaded region in the figure

– Since the material remains in elastic region

– It represents
• The materials ability to absorb energy without any permanent
deformation
 Modulus of toughness

• Energy absorbed by the material before failure

• Important for designing members that may be
overloaded
• Area under the stress-strain plot
 Example

• If P = 150kN is applied and released, find the permanent

deformation in the rod.
 Material models

• Very difficult to exactly express stress-strain response of

a material as a mathematical function.
• What is way out?
 Material models

• It is impossible to describe the entire stress – strain curve with

simple mathematical expression
• idealized stress – strain curve, which emphasizes the most
important aspect of material behavior

Linear elastic material Rigid Materials Perfectly plastic

(non-strain hardening)
 Material models

• Some more observation

Rigid Plastic material Elastic Perfectly Plastic material

(strain hardening) Elastic – Plastic material

• Linear vs non-linear elastic material

Poisson’s ratio

• For a slender bar subjected to axial loading:

x
x  y z  0
E
• The elongation in the x-direction is
accompanied by a contraction in the other
directions. Assuming that the material is
isotropic (no directional dependence),
y  z  0

• Poisson’s ratio is defined as

lateral strain y 
   z
axial strain x x

Alternatively:
 Shear stress-strain diagram

• For homogeneous and isotropic materials, the applied pure

shear stress will distort the material element uniformly
• Shear strain will measure the angular distortion of the
element relative to the sides originally along x- and y-axis
The pure shear experiment
can be performed by
subjecting thin tubes to
torsional loading.

Data is obtained for applied

torque and angle of twist.

This data is used to

determine shear stress-strain
curves.
 Shear stress-strain diagram

• The typical shear stress-strain plot looks similar to

engineering stress-strain diagram
• Shear modulus G is defined similarly to Elastic modulus E
• Hooke’s Law can be expressed as

Elastic resistance to shear deformation

 xy  G  xy  yz  G  yz  zx  G  zx
Relation among E and G

• An axially loaded slender bar will

elongate in the axial direction and
contract in the transverse directions.

• If the cubic element is oriented as in the

bottom figure, it will deform into a rhombus.
Axial load also results in a shear strain.

Shearing stress is maximum on a plane forming

an angle of 45o with the axis of the load

E ' = m.
 1   
2G
 Relation among E and G

• The new prismatic element will deform as

Under small deformation:

 Relation among E and G

• The new angle b can also be calculated using deformed

length of sides

F P cos P
   cos 2 
A A0 A0
cos
V P sin  P
   sin  cos
A A0 A0
cos
2
E For  = 45o
 1   
2G
Generalized Hooke’s Law

• For an element subjected to multi-axial loading,

the normal strain components resulting from
the stress components may be determined from
the principle of superposition. This requires:
1) strain is linearly related to stress
2) deformations are small

• With these restrictions:

 x  y  z
x    
E E E
 x  y  z
y    
E E E
 x  y z
z    
E E E
 Generalized Hooke’s Law
• In matrix form it can be written as

Inverting the relationship, we get:

Example

A circle of diameter d = 9 in. is scribed on an

unstressed aluminum plate of thickness t =
3/4 in. Forces acting in the plane of the plate
later cause normal stresses x = 12 ksi and z
= 20 ksi.
For E = 10x106 psi and  = 1/3, determine the
change in:
a) the length of diameter AB,
b) the length of diameter CD,
c) the thickness of the plate, and
d) the volume of the plate.
Dilatation: Bulk Modulus

• Relative to the unstressed state, the change in volume is

    
e  1  1   x  1   y 1   z   1  1   x   y   z 
 x y z
1  2

E

 x  y  z 
 dilatation (change in volume per unit volume)

• For element subjected to uniform hydrostatic pressure,

31  2  p
e  p 
E k
E resistance to uniform
k  bulk modulus compression.
31  2 
 Bulk modulus

• Ratio of direct stress to volumetric strain

• Measure of compressibility

• Subjected to uniform pressure, dilatation must be

negative, therefore
0   1 2
Composite Materials
• Fiber-reinforced composite materials are formed
from lamina of fibers of graphite, glass, or
polymers embedded in a resin matrix.

• Normal stresses and strains are related by Hooke’s

Law but with directionally dependent moduli of
elasticity,
x y z
Ex  Ey  Ez 
x y z

• Transverse contractions are related by directionally

dependent values of Poisson’s ratio, e.g.,
y 
 xy    xz   z
x x

• Materials with directionally dependent mechanical

properties are anisotropic.
 Residual Stresses

• When a single structural element is loaded uniformly beyond its

yield stress and then unloaded, it is permanently deformed but all
stresses disappear.
• Residual stresses will remain in a structure after loading and
unloading if
- only part of the structure undergoes plastic deformation
- different parts of the structure undergo different plastic deformations

• Residual stresses also result from the uneven heating or

cooling of structures or structural elements

• Member is statically indeterminate

 Example
A cylindrical rod is placed inside a tube
of the same length. The ends of the
rod and tube are attached to a rigid
support on one side and a rigid plate
on the other. The load on the rod-tube
assembly is increased from zero to 5.7
kips and decreased back to zero.
a) draw a load-deflection diagram
for the rod-tube assembly Ar  0.075 in.2 At  0.100 in.2

b) determine the maximum Er  30 106 psi Et  15 106 psi

elongation σY , r  36 ksi σY ,t  45 ksi

c) determine the permanent set

d) calculate the residual stresses in
the rod and tube.
Example
Bending
Bending

Google images.
 Bending

• A closer look
 Bending
• Stresses caused in beams and shaft
due to bending
– Analysis and design of beams
• Beams - structural members
supporting loads at various points
along the member
– concentrated loads or distributed
loads
• Applied loads result in internal
forces consisting of a shear force V
(from the shear stress distribution)
and a bending couple M (from the
normal stress distribution)
 Bending

• The internal force and moments may vary from point to point along the
axis of beam
• For proper designing of beam determination of maximum shear and
bending moment is required
• Express V and M as functions of their arbitrary position x along the beam’s
axis
• These shear and moment functions can then be plotted and represented
by graphs called shear force and bending moment diagrams
• The maximum values of V and M and the associated section can then be
obtained from these graphs
• In order to formulate V and M in terms of x we must choose the origin and
the positive direction for x
• Most often the origin is located at the left end of the beam and the
positive direction is to the right
 Bending

• Supports

Actual construction Representation

Roller support

Actual construction Representation

Pin support

Fixed support
 Bending

• Classification of Beam Supports

– Support reactions
Bending
 Bending

• Beam sign convention

– Shear force and bending couple at a point are determined by
passing a section through the beam and applying an equilibrium
analysis on the beam portions on either side of the section
– It is first necessary to establish a sign convention so as to define
“positive” and “negative” values for V and M
– Although the choice of a sign convention is arbitrary, here we
will use the one often used in engineering practice
Bending

• The positive directions are as follows

– The distributed load acts upward on the
beam
– the internal shear force causes a
clockwise rotation of the beam segment
on which it acts
– internal moment causes compression in
the top fibers of the segment such that it
bends the segment so that it holds water
– Loadings that are opposite to these are
considered negative
 Bending

Page 257 in Hibbeler.

 Example

• Draw SFD and BMD

– Support reactions

Sectioning 2:
Sectioning 1:
 Example

• Final SFD and BMD diagrams

 Example 1

• Draw SFD and BMD

– We take a section at x from left
end
– Draw the FBD
– Applying the equilibrium
equations
from  Fy  0   M B : RB  40 kN RD  14 kN
 Example 1

• Section the beam and apply equilibrium

analyses on resulting free-bodies
 Fy  0  20 kN  V1  0 V1  20 kN
 M1  0 20 kN 0 m   M1  0 M1  0

 Fy  0  20 kN  V2  0 V2  20 kN
 M2  0 20 kN 2.5 m   M 2  0 M 2  50 kN  m

V3  26 kN M 3  50 kN  m
V4  26 kN M 4  28 kN  m
V5  14 kN M 5  28 kN  m
V6  14 kN M 6  0
Example 1

• Identify the maximum shear and bending-

moment from plots of their distributions.
Vm  26 kN M m  M B  50 kN  m

• Apply the elastic flexure formulas to

determine the corresponding
maximum normal stress.
 Example 2

• Draw the SFD and BMD for the beam shown

– We take a section at x from left end
– Draw the FBD
– Applying the equilibrium equations
 Example 2

• SFD and BMD

 Example 3

• Draw SFD and BMD

– We have diff regions with diff loads
 Example 3

• Draw SFD and BMD

Support reactions:

SFD: No UDL so zero slope.

BMD:
Zero at ends.
Jump at mid point.
Constant negative slope -
 Relation among Load, Shear and BM

• Based upon the relation among load, shear and moment

• The relations developed can also be used as a check for SFD
and BMD concepts developed in previous section
• Let us start with the regions with distributed load
 Relation among Load, Shear and BM

• Applying moment balance,

We observe:
 Relation among Load, Shear and BM

• Another look
 Relation among Load, Shear and BM

• Regions of concentrated force and moment

– Again using equilibrium equations

Observations:

F is upward , DV is positive – shear will jump upward.

M0 is clockwise, DM is positive – moment diagram will

jump upward.
 Example 1

• Draw SFD and BMD

Step -1:

Support reactions:

Step -2:

SFD: Concentrated loads so no change in slope for SFD.

 Example 1

• BMD
 Assignment 6

• All solved examples

• 6.2, 6.4,6.9,6.18,6.19,6.20,6.22,6.28,6.37,6.45
 Bending stresses

• Loads acting on a beam create internal actions in the form of

shear forces and bending moments
• To be able to analyze and design beams subjected to a variety
of loading conditions
– We need to investigate the stresses and strains associated with those
shear forces and bending moments
• The loads acting on a beam cause the beam to bend
– deforming its axis into a curve

Beam with load Deflection curve

 Bending of straight member

• What we are interested in??

– Deformations that occur when a straight prismatic beam, made
of homogeneous material, is subjected to bending
• The analysis will be limited to
– beams having a cross-sectional area that is symmetrical with
respect to an axis
– bending moment is applied about an axis perpendicular to this
axis of symmetry
 Bending of straight member

• What happens when a straight prismatic member is subjected

to a bending moment?
– Longitudinal lines become curved
– Vertical transverse lines remain straight and yet undergo a rotation
– bottom portion stretches
– top portion to compresses
– between these two regions there must be a surface, called the neutral
surface, where material will not undergo a change in length
 Bending of straight member

• Patch test
 Bending Deformations

Beam with a plane of symmetry in pure bending:

• member remains symmetric

• bends uniformly to form a circular arc

• cross-sectional plane passes through arc center

and remains planar
• length of top decreases and length of bottom
increases
• a neutral surface must exist that is parallel to the
upper and lower surfaces and for which the length
does not change
• stresses and strains are negative (compressive)
above the neutral plane and positive (tension)
below it
 Bending of straight member

• any deformation of the cross section within its own plane will be
neglected
• The z axis, lying in the plane of the cross section and about which
the cross section rotates, is called the neutral axis
 Bending of straight member

• Pure bending vs nonuniform bending

• Pure bending refers to flexure of a beam under a

constant bending moment. Therefore, pure bending
occurs only in regions of a beam where the shear force is
zero (as V = dM/dx )

• Nonuniform bending refers to flexure in the presence of

shear forces, which means that the bending moment
changes as we move along the axis of the beam
 Bending of straight member

• Pure bending vs nonuniform bending

Strain due to bending

Consider a beam segment of length L.

After deformation, the length of the neutral
surface remains L. At other sections,
L     y 
  L  L     y      y
 y y
x    (strain varies linearly)
L  
c c
m  or ρ
 m
y
 x   m
c
 Stress Due to Bending

• For a linearly elastic material

y
 x  E x   E m
c
y
   m (stress varies linearly)
c
 Stress Due to Bending

• How to determine position of neutral axis??

• For static equilibrium,
y
Fx  0    x dA     m dA
c

0   m  y dA
c

First moment with respect to neutral plane is zero. Therefore, the neutral
surface must pass through the section centroid.

Consequently, once the centroid for the member’s cross-sectional area is

determined, the location of the neutral axis is known.
 Flexure formula

• How to relate stress with applied moment??

– Resultant internal moment M must be equal to the moment produced by the
stress distribution about the neutral axis

 y 
M    y x dA    y   m  dA
 c 
  I
M  m  y 2 dA  m
c c
Mc M
m  
I S
y I = represents the moment of inertia of the
Substituting  x    m
c cross-sectional area about the neutral axis
My
x  
I
 Flexure formula

• Finally we have
My Note that for y +ve  stress
x   negative and vice-versa.
I
The relation is often referred to as the flexure formula.
 Section modulus

• Maximum axial stress due to bending moment M

Mc M
m  
I S
Section modulus:

Depends only upon the geometry of the cross section.

Beams should be designed with as large a value of S as
practicable.

Wooden beam with a rectangular cross section of width b and depth h, we have
 Section modulus

• For rectangular beam 3

1
I 12 bh
S   16 bh3  16 Ah
c h2

Two beams with the same cross-sectional area A, the beam with the larger depth
h will have the larger section modulus and, thus, will be the more effective in
resisting bending.
 Section modulus

• Structural steel beams are designed to have a

large section modulus.
 Moment-curvature relationship

• The deformation of the member caused by the bending

moment M is measured by the curvature of the neutral
surface

1   1 Mc
 m  m 
 c Ec Ec I
M

EI
 Moment of inertia

• We use various type of moments in mechanics

– Mass moment of inertia
– Polar second moment of inertia/area
– Moment of inertia for an area
• What exactly do they mean?
• What is their physical interpretation?
 Mass moment of inertia

• The mass moment of inertia is one measure of the distribution of

the mass of an object relative to a given axis.
• Measures how an object resists angular acceleration.
 Polar second moment of inertia/area

• An object’s ability to resist torsion (i.e. “twisting”) about a given axis

due to an applied torque. If the polar moment of inertia is large, the
torsion produced by a given torque would be smaller.

𝑃
 Moment of inertia for an area

• The area moment of inertia is a property of a two-dimensional

plane shape which characterizes its deflection under loading. It is
also known as the second moment of area or area second moment
of inertia.
• Resistance of an object to bend about a certain plane when
subjected to a torque.
– Can you see it?
 Geometric properties of an Area

• Centroid
– Important to know in order to determine NA
– refers to the point that defines the geometric center for the
area
 Geometric properties of an Area

• Location of the centroid for some areas may be partially

or completely specified by using symmetry conditions
• In cases where the area has an axis of symmetry, the
centroid for the area will lie along this axis
• In cases where a shape has two axes of symmetry, it
follows that the centroid lies at the intersection of these
axes
 Choosing element

• Be careful with limits.

• Selecting a right element will ease the integration.

• Try to solve few examples.

 Geometric properties of an Area

• Composite areas
– A composite area can be sectioned or divided into several parts
having simpler shapes
– If the area and location of the centroid of each of these
“composite shapes” are known, one can determine the centroid
for the entire area

Making a table helps to avoid

calculation mistakes.

if a hole, or a geometric region having no material, is located within a composite part,

the hole is considered as an additional composite part having a negative area.

if the total area is symmetrical about an axis, the centroid of the area lies on the axis.
 Geometric properties of an Area

• Example 1
Locate the centroid C of the cross-sectional area for the T-beam

Solution 1
Using symmetry of cross section.

Solution 2

Using same two segments.

 Geometric properties of an Area

• Solution 3
Consider the cross-sectional area to be one large rectangle
less two small rectangles.
 Geometric properties of an Area

• Moment of inertia for an area

– It is a geometric property that is calculated about an axis

We can also calculate the moment of inertia of an area

about the pole O or z axis. This is referred to as the polar
moment of inertia.
 Geometric properties of an Area

• Parallel axis theorem

– If the moment of inertia for an area is known about a centroidal
axis, we can determine the moment of inertia of the area about
a corresponding parallel axis using the parallel-axis theorem.

The moment of inertia of an area about an axis is

equal to the area’s moment of inertia about a
parallel axis passing through the “centroid” plus the
product of the area and the square of the
perpendicular distance between the axes.
 Geometric properties of an Area

• Composite areas
– divide the area into its composite parts and indicate the
perpendicular distance from the axis to the parallel centroidal
axis for each part
– the moment of inertia of each part is determined about the
centroidal axis
– If this axis does not coincide with the specified axis, the parallel-
axis theorem, should be used to determine the moment of
inertia of the part about the specified axis
– if a composite part has a “hole,” the moment of inertia for the
composite is found by “subtracting” the moment of inertia for
the hole from the moment of inertia of the entire area including
the hole
 Geometric properties of an Area

• Example 2
Determine the moment of inertia of the cross-sectional
area of the T-beam about the centroidal x’ axis.

Solution 1:

Applying the parallel axis theorem to each rectangle

and adding the results, we have

Solution 2:
The area can be considered as one large
rectangle less two small rectangles.
 Design of beam for bending stress

• Designing a beam requires that many factors be considered,

including the type of structure, the materials to be used, the loads
to be supported, the environmental conditions to be encountered,
and the costs to be paid
• From the standpoint of strength, the task eventually reduces to
selecting a shape and size of beam such that the actual stresses in
the beam do not exceed the allowable stresses
• Required section modulus

• If the cross section is not doubly symmetric, or if the

allowable stresses are different for tension and compression
– determine two required section moduli
 Example

• Determine the absolute maximum bending stress

Solution: What should be the solution strategy??

 Example

• Moment of inertia of each part about the NA

– Using parallel axis theorem
 Example

• A high-strength steel wire of diameter d is bent around a cylindrical drum

of radius R0. Determine the bending moment M and maximum bending
stress max in the wire, assuming d = 4 mm and R0 = 0.5 m, E = 200 GPa and
proportional limit p1 = 1200 MPa.

• Solution strategy??

What is given that can be used to get bending moment??

 Example

• Maximum bending stress

 Assignment 6

• All solved example

• F6.16, 6.18
• 6.49, 6.55, 6.59, 6.61, 6.63, 6.68,6.71,6.73,6.84, 6.93
 Composite beams

• Beams constructed of two or more different materials are

referred to as composite beams
 Composite beams

• The things we should answer are

– Why do we need them?
– How to perform mechanics analysis of composite beams?
• Will flexural formula be valid?
• How about strain distribution?
 Composite beams

• Variation of strain

L     y 
  L  L     y      y
 y y
x    (strain varies linearly)
L  
c c
m  or ρ
 m
y
 x   m
c No material properties involved.
 Composite Beams

• Consider a composite beam made of two materials, 1 and 2

• If a bending moment is applied to this beam, the total cross-
sectional area will remain plane after bending, and hence the
normal strains will vary linearly from neutral axis
y
Normal strain varies linearly: x   What about stress??

E1 y E2 y
Piecewise linear normal stress variation:  1  E1 x    2  E2 x  
 

Jump in
stress at
juncture

Why??
 Composite Beams

• Neutral axis does not pass through section centroid of

composite section
• How to find NA and maximum stress??
• Induced force and moment must satisfy applied boundary
conditions
• A simpler way to satisfy these two conditions
– use the transformed section method
– transforms the beam into one made of a single material
 Composite Beams

• Beam is thought to consist entirely of the less stiff material 2

• Notice
– height h of the beam remains the same
– Upper portion of the beam must be widened
– Why??
• Necessary width can be determined by considering the force

dF = dF’
 Composite Beams

• Dimensionless number n is called transformation factor

Material that is being

transformed/reference material

• Indicates the factor by which the cross section of material 1 must

be magnified while transforming it into material 2
• Similarly, material 2 can also be transformed into material 1
• The transformation factor in this case will be
Material that is being
transformed/reference material

• Once the beam has been transformed into one having a single
material, the normal-stress distribution over the transformed cross
section will be linear
 Composite Beams

• Stress distribution
 Composite Beams

• Flexure formula can now be used to find the stress at

each point of beam
My
x  
I
1   x  2  n x

• Note that
– Stress found on the transformed material has to be multiplied
by the transformation factor to get the stress on actual beam
 Example

• Determine the normal stress at points B and C

of composite beam shown.

• Solution steps:-
We need to transform the beam having one material.

Let us say the entire beam is made of steel-

Material that is being transformed/reference
material

If wood will be replaced by steel having same

h, then the width of section must be reduced.
 Example

• The transformed beam will look like

• Location of NA
– Why do we need to find NA??
– Cross section is symmetric about y-axis
– Centroid will lie somewhere along y-axis
My
x  
I
1   x  2  n x
 Example

• Moment of inertia about NA

– Using parallel axis theorem

Normal stress at B` and C: My

x  
I
 Example

• Stress distribution on transformed section

Home work:- Solve the problem by

transforming the steel part into wood.

Normal stress in the wood at B:-

 Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry

• Stress due to eccentric loading

• How to calculate stress??
• Combined stresses due to
– axial load
– Moment caused by eccentric load
• Principal of superposition
– uniform stress due to a centric load • Eccentric loading
– linear stress distribution due a pure bending moment F  P
M  Pd
 x   x centric   x bending
P My
 
A I
 Eccentric Axial Loading in a Plane of Symmetry

• Validity requires stresses below proportional limit,

deformations have negligible effect on geometry, and
stresses not evaluated near points of load application

 x   x centric   x bending
P My
 
A I
 Reading assignment

• Curved Beams - page 319, Hibbeler

• Inelastic Bending - page 335, Hibbeler
 Shearing Stresses

• While determining the longitudinal stresses due to bending, we

assumed that there are no shear stresses
– Any deformation of the cross section within its own plane will be neglected
• However, Transverse loading applied to a beam results in normal
and shearing stresses in transverse sections
• The shear V is the result of a transverse shear-stress distribution
that acts over the beam’s cross section

Longitudinal shear stresses will act along

longitudinal planes of the beam due to the
complementary property of shear.
 Shearing Stresses

• To see this effect we can do a small experiment

– Compare the deformation behavior of three board (you can also
use playing cards) assembly in non bonded and bonded case.

When boards are not bonded together, If the boards are bonded together, then the
then application of the load P will cause longitudinal shear stresses acting between
the boards to slide relative to one another the boards will prevent their relative
when the beam deflects. sliding, and consequently the beam will act
as a single unit.
 Shearing Stresses

• Consequence of shearing stresses

– Shearing strain induces distortion in cross section
– Nonuniform shear-strain distribution will cause the cross section
to warp

The cross section will not remain plane as assumed in the development of the flexure
formula. However, in general, the cross-sectional warping due to shear is small enough
so that it can be neglected.
 Shear formula

• Distribution of shear strain is very complex. Can you see why??

• Indirect method to establish relationship between shear force and
induced shear stresses
– Horizontal force equilibrium of a portion of the element taken from the beam
– Notice that vertical forces are not shown in elemental FBD

Next, consider the element that has been sectioned at y’ from the neutral axis.
 Shear formula

• The resultant moment on each side is differ by

dM
• longitudinal shear stress  acts over the
bottom face of the segment
• Why  should be there at the first place???
Horizontal force equilibrium provides:
 Shear formula

• We have relation between shear force and bending moment

gradient

• Integral ( ) denotes the moment of area A` about NA

• Finally we have
shear formula

Meaning of all variable in above relation.

 Shearing stress

• Meaning of every term in shear formula

= the shear stress in the member at the point located a distance y’ from the
neutral axis.

V = the internal resultant shear force, determined from the method of sections
and the equations of equilibrium.

I = the moment of inertia of the entire cross-sectional area calculated about the
neutral axis.

t = the width of the member’s cross-sectional area, measured at the point where
 is to be determined.

Q = where is the area of the top (or bottom) portion of the member’s
cross-sectional area, above (or below) the section plane where t is measured,
and is the distance from the neutral axis to the centroid of .
 Shear formula

• Even though the relation is derived to determine shear

stresses acting on the beam’s longitudinal plane, the
formula applies as well for finding the transverse shear
stress on the beam’s cross-section
 Observation

• Due to the presence of transverse shear stresses, the

longitudinal shear will also be present
The longitudinal shear stress sometime is
responsible for shear failure of timber beams.
 Example

• Determine the shear stress distribution over the beam

cross-section

Shear stress:
VQ
 ave 
It

We need to find Q and I to determine shear stress .

Let us take an area element (A’):

 Example

• Now we can apply shear formula

Maximum shear stress:

 Example

• You can also see that the integration of shear stress shall
provide the shear force V acting on the cross section
– Let us take a differential area strip of dA
 Example

• The beam shown is made from two boards.

Determine the maximum shear stress in the
glue necessary to hold the boards together
along the seam where they are joined.

Solution:

To be able to apply shear formula, we need to know the

distribution of shear force V across the beam. So first we
need to draw SFD:

Step -1:
Determination of reaction forces.
 Example

• Step -2
– Drawing SFD
• Step -3
– Finding the NA

– reference axis is placed at the bottom of the cross-sectional area

Step -4: Moment of area about NA – using parallel axis theorem.

 Example

• Now we have the value of maximum shear force V

– Thickness t at the glued point

Now we need to find Q to determine shear stress using

shear formula.

Maximum shear stress:

 Shear flow in built-up members

• In order to achieve a greater resistance to loads, members are

“built up” from several composite parts
• Fasteners such as nails, bolts, welding material or glue are needed
to keep the component parts from sliding relative to one another
• In order to design these fasteners or determine their spacing, it is
necessary to know the shear force that must be resisted by the
fastener
• This loading, when measured as a force per unit length of beam, is
referred to as shear flow q
 Shear flow in built-up members

• The magnitude of shear flow can be obtained using same approach

used to determine shear stress

Finding the shear flow along the

juncture where the segment is
connected to the flange of the
beam.

Three horizontal forces :

Due to moment M and M+dM
acts at the juncture and it is to
Due to dM,
be supported by the fastener.

Equilibrium requires:
 Shear flow in built-up members

• We have

• Integral again denotes the moment of area A` about NA

Shear flow q:
 Shear flow in built-up members

• It is very important to identify Q correctly when determining

the shear flow at a particular junction on the cross section
 Example

• Nails having a total shear strength of 40 lb are used in a beam that can be
constructed either as in Case I or as in Case II. If the nails are spaced at 9
in., determine the largest vertical shear that can be supported in each
case so that the fasteners will not fail

Solution step: q is given and we need to find V.

First we need to determine Q and I.

 Example

• Section is same for both cases so I will also be same

• Case – I
– single row of nails holds the top or bottom flange onto the web. For one of
these flanges
 Example

• Case – II
– A single row of nails holds one of the side boards onto the web.
Thus,
 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

• How to find the shear-flow distribution throughout the cross-

sectional area??
– acts on both the longitudinal and transverse planes of the member
• We will assume that members have thin walls
– wall thickness is small compared to its height or width
– this analysis has important applications in structural and mechanical
design

Shear flow q:
 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

• How to establish the direction of shear flow in cross section

• Consider a segment dx of wide-flange beam
– Consider FBD of B and C taken from top flange
 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

• Distribution of shear flow Shear flow q:

Consider top right flange :

Maximum value of q At x = 0,
 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

• Distribution at left flange

– Symmetry of cross section ensures that the shear flow distribution at left
flange will be similar

• Next we can find the total force developed in each flange

 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

• Distribution in the web

Force F:
 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

• Distribution
– Flange - Linear
– Web – parabolic
– Notice the direction of q
 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

• Observations
– value of q changes over the cross section
– In particular, q will vary linearly along segments (flanges) that are perpendicular to
the direction of V, and parabolically along segments (web) that are inclined or
parallel to V
– q will always act parallel to the walls of the member
– the directional sense of q is such that the shear appears to “flow” through the
cross section, inward at the beam’s top flange, “combining” and then “flowing”
downward through the web, since it must contribute to the shear force V, and then
separating and “flowing” outward at the bottom flange
– If one is able to “visualize” this “flow” it will provide an easy means for establishing
not only the direction of q, but also the corresponding direction of 
 Shear Flow in Thin-Walled Members

• Shear flow in some common cases

Shear center
 Shear center

http://www.mace.manchester.ac.uk/project/teaching/civil/structuralconcepts/
 Shear Center for Open Thin-Walled Members

• In the previous section, it was assumed that the internal shear V

was applied along a principal centroidal axis of inertia that also
represents an axis of symmetry for the cross section
• Applying the shear along a principal centroidal axis that is not an
axis of symmetry e.g. channel section

Channel will not only bend downward,

it will also twist clockwise on
application of vertical force P.
 Shear Center for Open Thin-Walled Members

• Reason for twisting??

• Shearflow distribution along the channel’s flanges and web
– Resultant force in flange
– In web

Taking the moment of these forces about A

Torque created by the

flange forces is responsible
for twisting the member.

In order to prevent this twisting we need to apply P with eccentricity e.

 Shear Center for Open Thin-Walled Members

• In order to prevent this twisting we need to apply P with

eccentricity e

Flange forces can be determined in terms of P and dimension of flange and web. It
will then provide the e in terms of cross-section geometry.

The point O so located is called the shear center or flexural center.

 Shear Center for Open Thin-Walled Members

• When P is applied at the shear center, the beam will bend without
twisting
• Design handbooks often list the location of this point for a variety of
beams having thin-walled cross sections that are commonly used in
practice
 Shear Center for Open Thin-Walled Members

• If the member discussed previously rotated by 90o then

Bending without twisting.

This suggest that P is already applied at shear center. The line of action of P is passing
through axis of symmetry. We can conclude that shear center will always lie on an axis
of symmetry.
 Example

• Find shear flow and shear center

Moment of inertia I
1 3 1 3  h 
2
I  I web  2 I flange  th  2  bt  bt   
12 12  2  
1 th 2 6b  h 
 12

Shear flow q at any arbitrary position:

 Example

• To determine the shear center

Let us take moment about A:

depends only on the geometry

of the cross section.
 Example

• Determine the location of shear center

the shear flow and shear-flow resultants.

Note that the force F in each leg must be equal, since for equilibrium the sum of
their horizontal components must be equal to zero.
The lines of action of both forces intersect point O; therefore, this point must be the shear
center since the sum of the moments of these forces and V about O is zero.
 Example

• Magnitude of F
– Steps

Moment of Inertia:
 Example

• Shear flow q

Force F
 Assignment 7

• F7.1, F7.3, 7.3,7.5,7.11,7.14,7.25

• F7.8,F7.9,7.35,7.37,7.41,7.44,7.49
• 7.53,7.55,7.60,7.63,7.68,7.73
Deflection of beams
 Deflection of beams

• Deflection of beam – important to know

– To provide integrity and stability of a structure or machine
– prevent the cracking of any attached brittle materials such as concrete
or glass
– members do not vibrate or deflect severely in order to safely support
their intended loading
• it is often helpful to sketch the deflected shape of the beam
when it is loaded, in order to “visualize” any computed results
and thereby partially check these results
The deflection curve of the longitudinal axis
that passes through the centroid of each cross-
sectional area of a beam is called the elastic
curve.
Displacement of each point as a function of x.
 Deflection of beams

• It is necessary to know how the slope or displacement is

restricted at various types of supports
• Drawing BMD first helps to draw elastic curve

Due to the roller and pin supports, the

displacement at B and D must be zero
 Deflection of Beams

• Moment curvature relationship

– used for finding the slope and displacement at points on the elastic curve
– X-axis – along the longitudinal axis of beam
– Y or v axis – positive upwards to measure the displacement of elastic curve

limit the analysis to an initially straight beam that is elastically

deformed by loads applied perpendicular to the beam’s x axis and
lying in the x– plane of symmetry for the beam’s cross-sectional area
 Deflection of Beams

• Due to the loading, the deformation of the beam is caused by both

the internal shear force and bending moment
• If the beam has a length that is much greater than its depth, the
greatest deformation will be caused by bending

No deformation of NA
 Deflection of Beams

• Finally we have
Flexural rigidity

• How to use this relation to calculate the slope and

displacement??
• From elementary calculus
 Deflection of Beams

• So using back substitution

a nonlinear second-order differential equation.

Its solution, which is called the elastica, gives the exact shape of the elastic curve,
assuming that beam deflections occur only due to bending.

For small deformations of elastica, we can say is very small and its square
can be neglected.

So finally we get,
 Deflection of Beams

• We can further relate

• For constant EI we get

 Deflection of Beams

• To calculate slope and deflection, we need to integrate

the previous equation which will introduce constant of
integrations in the relation
• Solving for these constants under a given loading
condition will provide unique solution to the problem

• Sign convention
 Deflection of Beams

• Reading assignment:
– Boundary conditions (we have already discussed it previously) –
page 576 in Hibbeler
 Example

• End loaded cantilever beam

Steps:

Determination of C1 and C2:

 Example

• Slope and displacement

• Maximum slope and displacement occur at x = 0

 Example

• Determine maximum deflection for given simply supported beam

Due to symmetry of loading we need to solve only

Moment at any cross-section x:

Load distribution:
 Example

• Finally we get

Boundary conditions:
 Example

• Alternate solution method

• We have
 Example

• Determine the maximum deflection of the beam

Solution:

Reaction force:

Section wise moment M:

We need to have two regions, left and right of point load P in order to integrate the
differential equation.

The determination of constants becomes very tedious some times. A better method
was proposed by Macaulay for multiply loaded beam.
 Macaulay Method

• Using Macaulay’s method we can write the moment for full

beam using a line to denote load region in case of multiply
loaded beam
P
M  x P( x  2a)
3

We will integrate with respect to x so the constant will be valid for whole beam. Rest of
the steps are same as in double integration method.