NOTES ON

COURSE NAME: BASIC ELECTRONICS

COURSE CODE: BBEE103/203

22 SCHEME

Course Instructor: Ms. Pratheksha Rai N

Assistant Professor
Department of ECE, AJIET
 Vision of the institute
“To produce top-quality engineers who are groomed for attaining excellence in their profession
and competitive enough to help in the growth of nation and global society.”

Mission of the institute

• M1: To offer affordable high-quality graduate program in engineering with value
education and make the students socially responsible.
• M2: To support and enhance the institutional environment to attain research excellence
in both faculty and students and to inspire them to push the boundaries of knowledge
base.
• M3: To identify the common areas of interest amongst the individuals for the effective
industry- institute partnership in a sustainable way by systematically working together.
• M4: To promote the entrepreneurial attitude and inculcate innovative ideas among the
engineering professionals.
Department Vision
To be recognized as a center of excellence in the area of Electronics and Communication Engineering
by nurturing the young innovative minds into skillful and ethical professionals to cater the industrial
and societal needs.

Department Mission
M1. To establish state-of-the art laboratories to facilitate research and innovation to upgrade the
knowledge and skills in healthcare sector and IoT.
M2. To provide industry interaction for training programs on latest technology.
M3. To provide ethical and value based education by promoting activities addressing the societal
needs.

PROGRAM EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES (PEOs)

PEO1. Exhibit a desire for lifelong learning through professional and societal activities.
PEO2. Exhibit and apply their technical skills and knowledge in Electronics and
Communication Engineering for industry and societal needs.
PEO3. Exhibit leadership qualities, professional skills, management skills and ethics
needed for successful career.
 PROGRAM OUTCOMES (POs)

1. Engineering knowledge: Apply the knowledge of mathematics, science, engineering

fundamentals, and an engineering specialization to the solution of complex engineering
problems.
2. Problem analysis: Identify, formulate, review research literature, and analyze complex
engineering problems reaching substantiated conclusions using first principles of
mathematics, natural sciences, and engineering sciences.
3. Design/development of solutions: Design solutions for complex engineering problems
and design system components or processes that meet the specified needs with appropriate
consideration for the public health and safety, and the cultural, societal, and environmental
considerations.
4. Conduct investigations of complex problems: Use research-based knowledge and
research methods including design of experiments, analysis and interpretation of data, and
synthesis of the information to provide valid conclusions.
5. Modern tool usage: Create, select, and apply appropriate techniques, resources, and
modern engineering and IT tools including prediction and modeling to complex
engineering activities with an understanding of the limitations.
6. The engineer and society: Apply reasoning informed by the contextual knowledge to
assess societal, health, safety, legal and cultural issues and the consequent responsibilities
relevant to the professional engineering practice.
7. Environment and sustainability: Understand the impact of the professional engineering
solutions in societal and environmental contexts, and demonstrate the knowledge of, and
need for sustainable development.
8. Ethics: Apply ethical principles and commit to professional ethics and responsibilities and
norms of the engineering practice.
9. Individual and team work: Function effectively as an individual, and as a member or
leader in diverse teams, and in multidisciplinary settings.
10. Communication: Communicate effectively on complex engineering activities with the
engineering community and with society at large, such as, being able to comprehend and
write effective reports and design documentation, make effective presentations, and give
and receive clear instructions.
11. Project management and finance: Demonstrate knowledge and understanding of the
engineering and management principles and apply these to one’s own work, as a member
and leader in a team, to manage projects and in multidisciplinary environments.
12. Life-long learning: Recognize the need for, and have the preparation and ability to engage
in independent and life-long learning in the broadest context of technological change.

PROGRAM SPECIFIC OUTCOMES (PSOs)

PSO1. Embedded Systems: Ability to apply the fundamental knowledge of core Electronics
and Communication Engineering courses in the analysis, design, and development of
integrated electronic systems and healthcare devices.
PSO2. Communication Systems: Ability to apply the fundamental knowledge of signal
processing in the analysis, design, and development of communication systems.
PSO3. Simulation: Ability to use modern electronic tools such as MATLAB, Xilinx,
Multisim etc, to design and analyze the complex electronics and communication
systems.
COURSE OBJECTIVES: This course will enable students to:
Sl. No. DESCRIPTION
Operation of Semiconductor diode, Zener diode and Special purpose diodes and
1 their applications.

2 Biasing circuits for transistor (BJT) as an amplifier.

3 Study of linear Op-amps and its applications

4 Logic circuits and their optimization.

5 Principles of Transducers and Communication.

COURSE OUTCOMES (COs): After studying this course, students will be able to:
Sl. PO PSO
DESCRIPTION
No. MAPPING MAPPING
Develop the basic knowledge on
construction, operation and
CO1 PO1,PO2 -
characteristics of semiconductor
devices.
Apply the acquired knowledge to
CO2 construct small scale circuits consisting PO1,PO2 -
of semiconductor devices.
Describe the concepts of electronic
CO3 circuits encompassing Op-amps and its PO1,PO2 -
applications.
Develop competence knowledge to
CO4 construct basic digital circuit by make PO1,PO2 -
use of basic gate and its function.
Construct the conceptual blocks for
basic communication system, and
CO5 PO1,PO2 -
Apply the knowledge of various
transducers principle in sensor system.
COURSE CONTENT:
RBT CO
Module Details
Level Mapped
Semiconductor Diodes: Introduction, PN Junction diode,
Characteristics and Parameters, Diode Approximations,
DC Load Line analysis
Diode Applications: Introduction, Half Wave
Rectification, Full Wave Rectification, Full Wave Rectifier
1 L1,L2,L3 CO1
Power Supply: Capacitor Filter Circuit, RC π Filter
(includes numerical)
Zener Diodes: Junction Breakdown, Circuit Symbol and
Package, Characteristics and Parameters, Equivalent
Circuit, Zener Diode Voltage Regulator.
Bipolar Junction Transistors: Introduction, BJT Voltages &
Currents, BJT Amplification, Common Base
Characteristics, Common Emitter Characteristics,
Common Collector Characteristics,
2 L1,L2,L3 CO2
BJT Biasing: Introduction, DC Load line and Bias point
Field Effect Transistor: Junction Field Effect Transistor,
JFET Characteristics, MOSFETs: Enhancement
MOSFETs, Depletion Enhancement MOSFETs
Operational Amplifiers: Introduction, The Operational
Amplifier, Block Diagram Representation of Typical Op-
Amp, Schematic Symbol, Op-Amp parameters - Gain,
input resistance, Output resistance, CMRR, Slew rate,
Bandwidth, input offset voltage, Input bias Current and
3 Input offset Current, The Ideal Op-Amp , Equivalent L1,L2,L3 CO3
Circuit of Op-Amp, Open Loop Op-Amp configurations,
Differential Amplifier, Inverting & Non Inverting
Amplifier Op-Amp Applications: Inverting Configuration,
Non-Inverting Configuration, Differential Configuration,
Voltage Follower, Integrator, Differentiator
Boolean Algebra and Logic Circuits: Binary numbers,
Number Base Conversion, octal & Hexa Decimal
Numbers, Complements, Basic definitions, Axiomatic
Definition of Boolean Algebra, Basic Theorems and
4 Properties of Boolean Algebra, Boolean Functions, L1,L2,L3 CO4
Canonical and Standard Forms, Other Logic Operations,
Digital Logic Gates.
Combinational logic: Introduction, Design procedure,
Adders- Half adder, Full adder
Introduction to Transducers: Introduction, Resistive
5 L1,L2,L3 CO5
Transducers, Inductive Transducers, Capacitive
 Transducers, Thermal transducers, Optoelectronic
transducer, and Piezoelectric transducers.
Communications: Introduction to communication,
Communication System, Modulation

TEXT BOOKS & REFERENCE BOOKS:

BOOK TITLE / AUTHORS / PUBLICATION
T-1. Electronic Devices and Circuits, David A Bell, 5th Edition, Oxford, 2016
Op-amps and Linear Integrated Circuits, Ramakanth A Gayakwad, Pearson
T-2. Education, 4th Edition
Digital Logic and Computer Design, M. Morris Mano, PHI Learning, 2008 ISBN-
T-3. 978-81-203-0417-8
Electronic Instrumentation and Measurements (3rd Edition) – David A. Bell, Oxford
T-4. University Press, 2013

T-5 Electronic Communication Systems, George Kennedy, 4th Edition, TMH

T- Text Book.

WEB REFERENCES:
WEB ADDRESS

W-1. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/122106025

W-2. https://nptel.ac.in/courses/108105132

W-3 https://nptel.ac.in/courses/117104072

W- Website
 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Module - 1

Semiconductor diodes and Applications

Syllabus:
Semiconductor Diodes: Introduction, PN Junction diode, Characteristics and
Parameters, Diode Approximations, DC Load Line analysis (Text 1: 2.1,2.2,2.3,2.4)
Diode Applications: Introduction, Half Wave Rectification, Full Wave Rectification,Full
Wave Rectifier Power Supply: Capacitor Filter Circuit, RC π Filter (includes numerical)
(Text 1: 3.1,3.2,3.4,3.5)
Zener Diodes: Junction Breakdown, Circuit Symbol and Package, Characteristics and
Parameters, Equivalent Circuit, Zener Diode Voltage Regulator. (Text1:2.9, 3.7)
Textbooks:
1. Electronic Devices and Circuits, David A Bell, 5th Edition, Oxford, 2016

INTRODUCTION:
• The term “diode” refers to a two-electrode, or two-terminal device.
• A diode is a one-way device, offering a low resistance when forward biased, and behaving
almost as an open switch when reverse biased.
• An approximate constant Voltage drop occurs a forward biased diode, and this simplifies
diode circuit analysis.
• Diode forward and reverse characteristics are graph of corresponding current and voltage
levels.
• For Precise circuit analysis, DC Load lines are drawn on the diode forward characteristics.

The PN Junction:
➢ The pn junction is formed by joining p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor.
➢ The holes are the majority charge carriers in p-type semiconductor and the electrons are
the majority charge carriers in n-type semiconductor.
➢ The majority charge carriers are uniformly distributed in the semiconductor.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 1

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

➢ Since holes and electrons are close together at the junction, some free electrons from the
n-type are attracted across the junction to fill the adjacent holes on p-type and form the
negative ions.
➢ Similarly some holes from the p-type are attracted across the junction to combine with
electrons on n-type and form the positive ions as shown in fig.1.1.
➢ The movement of majority charge carriers across the junction is called as diffusion i.e.
from a region of high carrier concentration to a region of low carrier concentration.
➢ The p-type semiconductor and n-type semiconductor are electrically neutral before the
majority charge carriers diffuse across the junction.
➢ When the negative ions are created on the p-type, the portion close to the junction on p-
type acquires a negative voltage.
➢ Similarly when the positive ions are created on the n-type, the portion close to the junction
on n-type acquires a positive voltage.

Fig.1.1: pn junction
➢ The negative voltage on p-type repels the additional electrons crossing the junction and the
positive voltage on n-type repels the additional holes crossing the junction.
➢ This initial diffusion of charge carries creates a voltage at the junction known as barrier
voltage.
➢ The magnitude of barrier voltage depends on doping densities, electronic charge and
junction temperature.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 2

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

➢ The barrier voltage opposes the flow of majority carriers across the junction but assists the
flow of minority carriers across the junction.
➢ The movement of majority charge carriers across the junction leaves a layer on each side
that is depleted of charge carriers. This region is known as depletion region.
➢ On n-type the depletion region consists of donor impurity and on p-type the depletion
region consists of acceptor impurity.
➢ If the semiconductors have equal doping densities, then the depletion layers on each side
have same widths.
➢ If the p-type semiconductor is highly doped than n-type, then the depletion layer penetrates
more deeply into n-type. Similarly if the n-type semiconductor is highly doped than p-type,
then the depletion layer penetrates more deeply into p-type.
Biased junction
➢ When an external voltage is applied to a PN junction, the PN junction is said to be biased.
Forward-biased junction
➢ When the positive terminal is connected to p-type and negative terminal is connected to n-
type, the electrons from the n-type are repelled from the negative terminal and holes from
the p-type are repelled from the positive terminal as shown in fig.1.2.
➢ This reduces the width of the depletion region and the barrier potential.
➢ When the applied bias voltage increased the barrier voltage decreases and it disappears.
The majority charge carriers can easily flow across the junction.

Fig.1.2: pn junction under forward bias

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 3

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

➢ A majority charge carrier current flows and the junction is said to be forward biased.
➢ Increase in the bias voltage further from zero towards knee of the characteristics the barrier
potential is overcome and allows more majority charge carriers to flow across the junction.

Fig.1.3: Forward -bias characteristics

Reverse-biased junction
➢ When the positive terminal is connected to n-type and negative terminal is connected to p-
type, the electrons from the n-type are attracted to the positive terminal and holes from the
p-type are attracted to the negative terminal as shown in fig.1.4.

Fig.1.4: pn junction under Reverse bias

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 4

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

➢ This widens the depletion region and the barrier voltage increases.
➢ When barrier voltage increases there is no possibilities of majority carrier current flow
across the junction and the junction is said to be reverse biased and have a high resistance.
➢ During the reversed biased condition the minority carriers on each side can still cross the
junction.
➢ The movement minority carriers across the junction results in small reverse current.
➢ Only a small amount of reverse voltage is sufficient to sweep all the available minority
carriers across the junction.
➢ Increase in the bias voltage further does not increase the current level and this current is
known as reverse saturation current.

Fig.1.5: Reverse bias junction and characteristics

1.1 The PN-Junction Diode:

➢ A pn-junction permits substantial current flow when forward biased, and blocks current
when reverse biased.Thus can be used as a switch, i.e. on when forward biased and off
when reverse biased.
➢ A pn-junction provided with copper wire connecting leads becomes an electronic device
known as diode.

Fig 1.1: A Semiconductor is a pn- junction with conductors on each side of the junction for connecting the
device to a circuit.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 5

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

➢ The circuit symbol for a diode is an arrowhead and a bar. The arrowhead indicates the
direction of current flow when the diode is forward bias as shown in the fig.1.6.
➢ The p-type of the diode is always the positive terminal for forward bias and is termed as
anode. The n-type of the diode is always the negative terminal for forward bias and is
termed as cathode.
➢ A pn-junction diode can be destroyed if a high level of forward current overheats the
device. It can also be destroyed if a large reverse voltage causes the junction to break down.
➢ In general, physically large diodes pass the largest currents and survive the largest reverse
voltages.
➢ Small diodes are limited to low current levels and low reverse voltages.

Fig.1.2: PN-Junction diode

Different types of diode:

• The Fig 1.7 Shows the appearance of low, medium, and high-current diodes.
• Since the body of the low-current device in fig 1.7 a may be only 0.3cm long, the cathode
is usually identified by a coloured band.
• Low current diode is capable of passing a maximum forward current of approximately
100mA. It can also survive 75V reverse bias without breaking down, and its reverse current
is usually less than 1µA AT 25◦c.
• Medium current diode shown in fig 1.7b can pass a forward current of 400mA. It can
survive over 200V reverse bias.
• High Current diodes, or power diodes in the Fig 1.7c generates a lot of heat. Such devices
are designed to be connected mechanically to a metal heat sink. Power diodes can pass
forward current of many amperes and can survive several hundred volts of reverse bias

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 6

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig 1.3: The Size and appearance of a diode depend upon the level of forward current that the device is designed to
pass

Fig.1.4: pn junction diode characteristics

DC LOAD LINE:
DC load line of the diode is a tool used to find exact values of diode voltage VD and diode current ID, in
turn , to obtain the correct operating point, Q.
Assume diode is forward biased. Applying K V L to the closed loop of the circuit fig. 1.6 (a).
Vin = VD + ID R …………….. (2)
Expression (2) is a linear equation, having two unknown variables VD and ID. These parameters are also X
and Y-axis quantities of the diode forward curve (see Fig. 1.6 (b). VD and ID can be determined by graphical
method.
Though the graphical method is impractical solution it is useful for qualitative understanding of the diode.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 7

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig 1.6 a) Diode Forward biased Circuit Fig 1.6 b) DC load line drawn on forward characteristics

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 8

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON VI CHARACTERISTICS OF DIODE:

For a given PN junction, in the forward bias region the value of barrier voltage VB dependent on
temperature.
It has been observed that for both germanium and silicon, the value of VB decreases by 2 mV/°C.
In the reverse bias region, the breakdown voltage (VBR) is increasing with the increase in
temperature and the reverse saturation current (IS) is increasing to almost double in magnitude for
every 10°C increase in temperature

Problem
1. Calculate the forward and reverse resistances offered by a silicon diode with I F =
100mA, VF = 0.75V and VR = 50V, IR = 1µA.
Forward resistance is given by
VF 0.75
RF = = = 7.5Ω
IF 100m

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 9

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Reverse resistance is given by

VR 50
RR = = = 500MΩ
IR 1μ
Diode parameters
The diode parameters required for the construction of diode characteristics are
i. Forward voltage drop (VF)
ii. Maximum forward current (IF(max))
iii. Reverse breakdown voltage (VBR)
iv. Reverse saturation current (Io)
v. Dynamic resistance (rd)
Problem
1. Plot the forward and reverse characteristics of a diode for the following data
a. Forward voltage drop = 0.6V
b. Reverse breakdown voltage = 40V
c. Reverse saturation current = 1µA
d. Forward current = 20mA at a forward voltage of 0.65V
e. Forward current = 60mA at a forward voltage of 0.7V

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 10

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Dynamic Resistance (rd)

➢ Dynamic resistance is the reciprocal of the slope of the forward characteristics. Dynamic
resistance is also known as incremental resistance.
➢ From the characteristics the slope is given by
∆IF
∆VF

Fig.1.8: pn junction diode characteristics

➢ Therefore the dynamic resistance can be calculated as
∆VF
rd =
∆IF
where ΔVF is the change in the forward voltage and ΔIF is the change in the forward current.

Problem
1. Determine the dynamic resistance at a forward current of 40mA for the diode
characteristics given in the fig.1.6
∆VF 0.05
rd = = = 1.25Ω
∆IF 40m

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 11

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Diode approximation
Equivalent circuit:
➢ Equivalent circuit is a proper combination of electrical elements like voltage source,
current source, resistor etc to represent the actual terminal characteristics of the device.
➢ Equivalent circuit for a diode can be obtained by approximating the VI characteristics by
straight line segments.
➢ There are 3 types of equivalent circuits or approximations

1. Ideal diode approximation

➢ Diodes are one way device, offering a low resistance when forward biased and a high
resistance when reverse biased.
➢ An ideal diode (or perfect diode) would have zero forward resistance and zero forward
voltage drop. It would also have an infinitely high reverse resistance, which would result
in zero reverse current.

Fig.1.9: Ideal diode approximation: characteristics and equivalent circuit

2. Practical diode approximation
➢ Although an ideal diode does not exist, but diodes can be assumed to be near-ideal devices
with forward voltage drop and these diodes are called as practical diode.
➢ For silicon diode forward drop is 0.7V and for germanium diode forward drop is 0.3V

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 12

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig.1.10: Practical diode approximation: characteristics and equivalent circuit

Piecewise Linear approximation
➢ When a forward characteristics of a diode is not available a straight line approximation
called piecewise linear characteristics can be used.
➢ In a forward bias, diode is assumed to have a constant forward voltage drop (VF) and
negligible series resistance (dynamic resistance).
➢ To construct a piecewise linear characteristics, VF is marked first on the horizontal axis
(point X). Then from VF a straight line is drawn with a slope equal to the diode dynamic
resistance.

Fig.1.11: Piecewise linear approximation: characteristics and equivalent circuit

Problems:
1. Calculate the diode current for the given circuit having a silicon diode with a
resistance of 4.7kΩ and E = 15V

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 13

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Apply KVL for the circuit we get

E = IF R1 + VF (VF = voltage drop across diode)
Therefore diode current is given by
E − VF
IF =
R1
15 − 0.7
IF =
4.7K
IF = 3.04mA
2. Calculate the diode current for the given circuit having a silicon diode with a
resistance of 1kΩ and E = 12V

Apply KVL for the circuit we get

E = IF R1 + VF
Therefore diode current is given by
E − VF
IF =
R1
12 − 0.7
IF =
1K
IF = 11.3mA

3. Construct a piecewise linear characteristics for a silicon diode which has a 0.25Ω
dynamic resistance and a 200mA maximum forward current.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 14

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

∆VF
rd =
∆IF
∆VF = rd ∗ ∆IF
∆VF = 200m ∗ 0.25 = 0.05V
➢ To draw the piecewise linear characteristics mark point A at VF = 0.7V on the horizontal
axis
➢ At 200mA mark point B at VF = 0.7V + 0.05V = 0.75V on the horizontal axis
➢ Therefore the piecewise linear characteristics for the given problem is as shown in the
figure below.

4. Calculate IF for the diode in the given circuit assuming that VF = 0.7V, E = 1.5V, R1 =
10Ω and rd = 0. What is the current if we consider rd = 0.25Ω

➢ Equivalent circuit of the diode when dynamic resistance is neglected is obtained by

replacing diode with a voltage cell with a voltage VF = 0.7V

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 15

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

➢ Apply KVL for the equivalent circuit when rd = 0 we get

E = IF R1 + VF
E − VF 1.5 − 0.7
IF = = = 80mA
R1 10
➢ Equivalent circuit of the diode with a dynamic resistance is obtained by replacing diode
with a voltage cell with a voltage VF = 0.7V and dynamic resistance rd.

➢ Apply KVL for the equivalent circuit when rd = 0.25Ω we get

E = IF R1 + IF rd + VF
E − VF 1.5 − 0.7
IF = = = 78mA
R1 + rd 10 + 0.25

Rectifiers
➢ A rectifier is an electrical device that converts an Alternating Current (AC) into a Direct
Current (DC) by using one or more P-N junction diodes.
➢ The rectifiers are mainly classified into two types:
i. Half wave rectifier
ii. Full wave rectifier
➢ Half wave rectifiers use one diode, while a full wave rectifier uses multiple diodes.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 16

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Half-wave rectifier
➢ Half-wave rectifiers allows only one half-cycle (positive half-cycle) of the AC voltage
through it and will block the other half-cycle (negative half-cycle) of the AC voltage as
shown in the fig.1.12.

Fig.1.12: Half wave rectifier operation

➢ Fig.1.13 shows the circuit diagram of a half wave rectifier using a diode and a step down
transformer.

Fig.1.13: Half-wave rectifier

➢ The step down transformer is used to reduce the ac supply voltage to the required level.
➢ The ac voltage to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer and the
voltage across the secondary of the transformer is available for rectification.
➢ Half-wave rectifier rectifies only one half cycle of the ac input.
➢ Let the voltage applied across the primary of the transformer be
v1 = Vm sinωt
where Vm is the peak value
➢ The voltage across the secondary of the transformer available for rectification is given by

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 17

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

N2
v2 = V sinωt
N1 m
N2
where is the turns ratio of the transformer
N1
N1: number of turns in the primary coil
N2: number of turns in the secondary coil
➢ If N2 = N1
v2 = Vm sinωt

Fig.1.14: Half-wave rectifier waveform

➢ During the positive half cycle the diode conducts and the current io flows through the load.
The load voltage vo = ioRL.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 18

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

➢ During the negative half cycle the diode gets reverse biased and the current io is zero. The
load voltage vo = 0.

Fig.1.15: Equivalent circuit to find half-wave rectifier current

➢ From the circuit shown in the fig.1.15
v2
io =
Rf + RL
Vm sinωt
io =
Rf + RL
io = Im sinωt
where
Vm
Im = is the peak load current
Rf + RL

Average DC load current

Area under one cycle of io
Idc =
Period of io

2π
io dωt
Idc = ∫
0 2π
2π
Im sinωt dωt
Idc = ∫
0 2π
π 2π
1
Idc = [∫ Im sinωt dωt + ∫ 0 dωt]
2π 0 π

Im
Idc = [−cosωt]π0
2π
Im
Idc =
π
Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 19
 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Average DC load voltage

Vdc = Idc R L
Im
Vdc = ( ) R L
π
1 Vm
Vdc = ( )R
π Rf + RL L
Vm RL
Vdc = ( )
π Rf + RL

Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
Rf + RL
RL

Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
R
1 + Rf
L

RMS load current

Area under one cycle of i2o

Irms = √
Period of io

2π 2
io dωt
Irms = √∫
0 2π

π 2π
1 2 2
Irms = √ [∫ Im sin ωt dωt + ∫ 0 dωt]
2π 0 π

1 π1
Irms = Im √ ∫ (1 − cos2ωt) dωt
2π 0 2

π π
1
Irms = Im √ [∫ dωt − ∫ cos2ωt dωt]
4π 0 0

Im 1 π
sin2ωt π
Irms = √ [(ωt)0 − ( ) ]
2 π 2 0

Im 1 1
Irms = √ [(π − 0) − (sin2π − sin0)]
2 π 2

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 20

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Im
Irms =
2
RMS load voltage
Vrms = Irms R L
Im
Vrms = ( ) R L
2
1 Vm
Vrms = ( )R
2 Rf + RL L
Vm ⁄2
Vrms =
R
1 + Rf
L

Rectifier efficiency
➢ It is defined as the ration of the dc output power to the ac input power supplied to the
rectifier. It is denoted by ηr.
Pdc
ηr =
Pi
➢ dc output power is given by
2
Pdc = Idc RL
➢ For half wave rectifier, Idc is given by
Im
Idc =
π
➢ Therefore dc output power can be expressed as
2
Im
Pdc = 2 R L
π
➢ ac input power is given by
2 (R
Pi = Irms f + RL)

➢ For half wave rectifier, Irms is given by

Im
Irms =
2
➢ Therefore ac input power can be expressed as
2
Im
Pi = (R + R L )
4 f
➢ Therefore efficiency can be expressed as

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 21

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

2
Im
R 0.406R L
ηr = π2 L =
2
Im (R f + R L )
(R f + RL)
4
0.406 0.406
ηr = =
(R f + R L ) R
1 + Rf
RL L

40.6
%ηr =
R
1 + Rf
L

➢ If diode is ideal, Rf = 0 then

%ηr max = 40.6
Ripple factor
➢ It is the ratio of RMS value of ac component present in the rectified output to the dc
component of the rectified output. It is denoted by γ
Vac
γ=
Vdc
➢ The output of the rectifier is a pulsating dc and has two component
1. ac component of RMS value Vac
2. dc component Vdc
➢ Total power output is the sum of powers of dc and ac components
total RMS value of 2 RMS value of 2
[ ] = [dc value]2 + [ ]
rectifed output ac component
2 2 2
Vrms = Vdc + Vac
2
➢ Dividing throughout by Vdc we get
2 2
Vrms Vac
2 = 1 + 2
Vdc Vdc
Vrms 2 Vac 2
( ) = 1+( )
Vdc Vdc
Vrms 2
( ) = 1 + γ2
Vdc

Vrms 2
√
γ= ( ) − 1
Vdc

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 22

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Vm ⁄2
Vrms =
R
1 + Rf
L

Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
Rf
1+R
L

➢ Therefore

π 2
γ = √( ) − 1
2

γ = 1.21
Vac
γ = 1.21 =
Vdc
Vac = 1.21Vdc
➢ Therefore in the half wave rectifier the ac or the ripple component is 121% of the dc
component. Hence half wave rectifier is not recommended for practical applications.
Peak Inverse Voltage
➢ It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied for the diode.

Fig.1.16: Equivalent circuit to find Peak Inverse Voltage

➢ Applying KVL we get,
v2 - vr + ioRL = 0
➢ since io = 0
vr = v2 = Vmsinωt
PIV = vr max = Vm when sinωt = 1
Problems

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 23

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

1. A sinusoidal voltage of peak value 40V and frequency 50Hz is applied to a half wave
rectifier having a load resistor of 800Ω and Rf of the diode is 8Ω. Calculate
a. Peak, dc and rms value of load current
b. dc output power
c. ac input power
d. rectifier efficiency
Peak current is given by
Vm 40
Im = = = 49.5mA
Rf + RL 8 + 800
DC current is given by
Im 49.5m
Idc = = = 15.75mA
π π
RMS current is given by
Im 49.5m
Irms = = = 24.75mA
2 2
DC output power is given by
2
Pdc = Idc RL
Pdc = (15.75m)2 ∗ 800
Pdc = 198.45mW
ac input power is given by
2 (R
Pi = Irms f + RL)

Pi = (24.75m)2 ∗ (8 + 800)
Pi = 494.95mW
Rectifier efficiency
Pdc
ηr = ∗ 100%
Pi
198.45m
ηr = ∗ 100%
494.95m
ηr = 40.09%

2. The input to a half wave rectifier is given through a 10:1 transformer from a supply
of 230sin314t. If Rf = 50Ω and RL = 500Ω determine

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 24

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

a. dc load voltage
b. rms load voltage
c. PIV
d. rectifier efficiency
e. dc power delivered to load
f. freq of output waveform
Secondary voltage is given by
N2 1
v2 = Vm sinωt = ∗ 230sin314t
N1 10
v2 = 23sin314t
Frequency of the output waveform is given by
ω 314
f= = = 50Hz
2π 2π
DC load voltage is given by

Vm ⁄π 23⁄π
Vdc = ( )= = 6.66V
R 50
1 + Rf 1 + 100
L

RMS load voltage is given by

Vm ⁄2 23⁄2
Vrms = = 10.45V
Rf 50
1+R 1 + 100
L

PIV across the diode is given by

PIV = Vm = 23V
DC output power is given by
2
Vdc (6.66)2
Pdc = =
RL 500
Pdc = 88. mW
Rectifier efficiency
40.6 40.6
%ηr = = = 36.91
Rf 50
1+R 1 + 100
L

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 25

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Full-wave rectifier
➢ Fig.1.17 shows the circuit diagram of a full wave rectifier using two diodes and a center-
tapped transformer.
➢ The step down transformer is used to reduce the ac supply voltage to the required level.
➢ The ac voltage to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer and the
voltage across the secondary is available for rectification.
➢ Full-wave rectifier rectifies both cycle of the ac input.
➢ Let the voltage applied across the primary of the transformer be
v1 = Vm sinωt
where Vm is the peak value
➢ The voltage across the secondary of the transformer available for rectification is given by
N2
v2 = V sinωt
N1 m
N2
where is the turns ratio of the transformer
N1
➢ If N2 = N1
v2 = Vm sinωt

Fig.1.17: Full-wave rectifier

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 26

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig.1.17: Full-wave rectifier waveform

➢ During the positive half cycle the diode D1 conducts and diode D2 remains off and the
current io = id1 flows through the load. The load voltage vo = ioRL.
➢ During the negative half cycle the diode D2 conducts and diode D1 remains off and the
current io = id2 flows through the load. The load voltage vo = ioRL.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 27

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig.1.18: Equivalent circuit to find full-wave rectifier current

➢ From the circuit shown in the fig.1.18
v2
io =
Rf + RL
Vm sinωt
io =
Rf + RL
io = Im sinωt
where
Vm
Im = is the peak load current
Rf + RL

Average DC load current

Area under one cycle of io
Idc =
Period of io
π
io dωt
Idc = ∫
0 π
1 π
Idc = ∫ Im sinωt dωt
π 0
Im
Idc = [−cosωt]π0
π
2Im
Idc =
π
Average DC load voltage
Vdc = Idc R L
2Im
Vdc = ( ) RL
π

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 28

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

2 Vm
Vdc = ( )R
π Rf + RL L
2Vm RL
Vdc = ( )
π Rf + RL

2 Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
Rf + RL
RL

2Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
R
1 + Rf
L

RMS load current

Area under one cycle of i2o

Irms = √
Period of io

1 π
Irms = √ ∫ i2o dωt
π 0

1 π2
Irms = √ ∫ Im sin2 ωt dωt
π 0

1 π1
Irms = Im √ ∫ (1 − cos2ωt) dωt
π 0 2

π π
1
Irms = Im √ [∫ dωt − ∫ cos2ωt dωt]
2π 0 0

1 π
sin2ωt π
Irms = Im √ [(ωt)0 − ( ) ]
2π 2 0

1 1
Irms = Im √ [(π − 0) − (sin2π − sin0)]
2π 2
Im
Irms =
√2

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 29

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

RMS load voltage

Vrms = Irms R L
Im
Vrms = ( ) RL
√2
1 Vm
Vrms = ( ) RL
√2 R f + R L
Vm ⁄√2
Vrms =
R
1 + Rf
L

Rectifier efficiency
➢ It is defined as the ration of the dc output power to the ac input power supplied to the
rectifier. It is denoted by ηr.
Pdc
ηr =
Pi
➢ dc output power is given by
2
Pdc = Idc RL
➢ For half wave rectifier, Idc is given by
2Im
Idc =
π
➢ Therefore dc output power can be expressed as
2
4Im
Pdc = R
π2 L
➢ ac input power is given by
2 (R
Pi = Irms f + RL)

➢ For half wave rectifier, Irms is given by

Im
Irms =
√2
➢ Therefore ac input power can be expressed as
2
Im
Pi = (R + R L )
2 f
➢ Therefore efficiency can be expressed as
2
4Im
R 8 RL
ηr = π2 L =
2
Im 2
π (R f + R L )
(R f + RL)
2
Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 30
 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

0.812 0.812
ηr = =
(R f + R L ) R
1 + Rf
RL L

81.2
%ηr =
R
1 + Rf
L

➢ If diode is ideal, Rf = 0 then

%ηr max = 81.2
Ripple factor
➢ It is the ratio of RMS value of ac component present in the rectified output to the dc
component of the rectified output. It is denoted by γ
Vac
γ=
Vdc
➢ The output of the rectifier is a pulsating dc and has two component
3. ac component of RMS value Vac
4. dc component Vdc
➢ Total power output is the sum of powers of dc and ac components
total RMS value of 2 2 RMS value of 2
[ ] = [dc value] + [ ]
rectifed output ac component
2 2 2
Vrms = Vdc + Vac
2
➢ Dividing throughout by Vdc we get
2 2
Vrms Vac
2 = 1+ 2
Vdc Vdc
Vrms 2 Vac 2
( ) = 1+( )
Vdc Vdc
Vrms 2
( ) = 1 + γ2
Vdc

Vrms 2
γ = √( ) − 1
Vdc

Vm ⁄√2
Vrms =
R
1 + Rf
L

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 31

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

2 Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
Rf
1+R
L

➢ Therefore

π 2
γ= √( ) − 1
2√2

γ = 0.483
Vac
γ = 0.483 =
Vdc
Vac = 0.483Vdc
➢ Therefore in the full wave rectifier the ac or the ripple component is 48.3% of the dc
component. Since ripple content is less the dc value, full wave rectifier provides more dc
output voltage than a half wave rectifier.
Peak Inverse Voltage
It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied for the diode.

Fig.1.19: Equivalent circuit to find Peak Inverse Voltage

Applying KVL we get,
v2 + v2 – vr = 0
v2 = Vmsinωt
vr = 2v2 = 2Vmsinωt
PIV = vr max = 2Vm when sinωt = 1

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 32

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Full wave bridge rectifier

➢ Fig.1.20 shows the circuit diagram of a full wave bridge rectifier. It uses four diodes which
are connected in the form of a bridge.
➢ The ac voltage to be rectified is applied across the primary of the transformer and the
voltage across the secondary is available for rectification.
➢ Full wave bridge rectifier rectifies both cycle of the ac input.
➢ Let the voltage applied across the primary of the transformer be
v1 = Vm sinωt
where Vm is the peak value
➢ The voltage across the secondary of the transformer available for rectification is given by
N2
v2 = V sinωt
N1 m
N2
where is the turns ratio of the transformer
N1
➢ If N2 = N1
v2 = Vm sinωt

Fig.1.20: Full-wave bridge rectifier

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 33

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig.1.21: Full-wave bridge rectifier waveform

➢ During the positive half cycle the diode D1 and D2 are forward biased and diode D3 and D4
are reverse biased and the current io = id1 = id2 flows through the load. The load voltage vo
= i o R L.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 34

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig.1.22: Equivalent circuit during positive cycle

➢ During the negative half cycle the diode D3 and D4 are forward biased and diode D1 and
D2 are reverse biased and the current io = id1 = id2 flows through the load. The load voltage
vo = ioRL.

Fig.1.23: Equivalent circuit during negative cycle

➢ From the circuit shown in fig.1.22
−v2 + io R f + io R L + io R f = 0
v2
io =
2R f + R L
Vm sinωt
io =
2R f + R L
io = Im sinωt
where
Vm
Im = is the peak load current
2R f + R L

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 35

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Average DC load current

Area under one cycle of io
Idc =
Period of io
π
io dωt
Idc = ∫
0 π
π
1
Idc = ∫ I sinωt dωt
π 0 m
Im
Idc = [−cosωt]π0
π
2Im
Idc =
π

Average DC load voltage

Vdc = Idc R L
2Im
Vdc = ( ) RL
π
2 Vm
Vdc = ( )R
π 2R f + R L L
2Vm RL
Vdc = ( )
π 2R f + R L

2 Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
2R f + R L
RL

2Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
2R f
1+ R
L

RMS load current

Area under one cycle of i2o

Irms = √
Period of io

1 π
Irms = √ ∫ i2o dωt
π 0

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 36

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

1 π2
Irms = √ ∫ Im sin2 ωt dωt
π 0

1 π1
Irms = Im √ ∫ (1 − cos2ωt) dωt
π 0 2

π π
1
Irms = Im √ [∫ dωt − ∫ cos2ωt dωt]
2π 0 0

1 sin2ωt π
Irms = Im √ [(ωt)π0 − ( ) ]
2π 2 0

1 1
Irms = Im √ [(π − 0) − (sin2π − sin0)]
2π 2
Im
Irms =
√2
RMS load voltage
Vrms = Irms R L
Im
Vrms = ( ) RL
√2
1 Vm
Vrms = ( ) RL
√2 2R f + R L
Vm ⁄√2
Vrms =
2R
1+ R f
L

Rectifier efficiency
➢ It is defined as the ratio of the dc output power delivered to the load to the ac input power
supplied from the secondary of the transformer. It is denoted by ηr.
Pdc
ηr =
Pi
➢ dc output power is given by
2
Pdc = Idc RL
➢ For half wave rectifier, Idc is given by
2Im
Idc =
π

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 37

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

➢ Therefore dc output power can be expressed as

2
4Im
Pdc = 2 R L
π
➢ ac input power is given by
2 (2R
Pi = Irms f + RL)

➢ For half wave rectifier, Irms is given by

Im
Irms =
√2
➢ Therefore ac input power can be expressed as
2
Im
Pi = (2R f + R L )
2
➢ Therefore efficiency can be expressed as
2
4Im
R 8 RL
ηr = π2 L =
2
Im π2 (2R f + R L )
(2R f + RL)
2
0.812 0.812
ηr = =
(2R f + R L ) 2R
1+ R f
RL L

81.2
%ηr =
2R
1+ R f
L

➢ If diode is ideal, Rf = 0 then

%ηr max = 81.2
Ripple factor
➢ It is the ratio of RMS value of ac component present in the rectified output to the dc
component of the rectified output. It is denoted by γ
Vac
γ=
Vdc
➢ The output of the rectifier is a pulsating dc and has two component
i. ac component of RMS value Vac
ii. dc component Vdc
➢ Total power output is the sum of powers of dc and ac components
total RMS value of 2 RMS value of 2
[ ] = [dc value]2 + [ ]
rectifed output ac component

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 38

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

2 2 2
Vrms = Vdc + Vac
2
➢ Dividing throughout by Vdc we get
2 2
Vrms Vac
2 = 1+ 2
Vdc Vdc
Vrms 2 Vac 2
( ) = 1+( )
Vdc Vdc
Vrms 2
( ) = 1 + γ2
Vdc

Vrms 2
γ = √( ) − 1
Vdc

Vm ⁄√2
Vrms =
2R
1+ R f
L

2 Vm ⁄π
Vdc = ( )
2R
1+ R f
L

➢ Therefore

π 2
γ = √( ) − 1
2√2

γ = 0.483
Vac
γ = 0.483 =
Vdc
Vac = 0.483Vdc
➢ Therefore in the full wave rectifier the ac or the ripple component is 48.3% of the dc
component. Since ripple content is less the dc value, full wave rectifier provides more dc
output voltage than a half wave rectifier.
Peak Inverse Voltage
➢ It is the maximum reverse voltage that can be applied for the diode.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 39

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig.1.23: Equivalent circuit to find Peak Inverse Voltage

➢ Applying KVL we get,

v2 – vr = 0
but,
v2 = Vmsinωt
therefore vr = v2 = Vmsinωt
PIV = vr max = Vm when sinωt = 1

Comparison of rectifiers

Have-wave Full-wave Full-wave

Parameter
Rectifier Rectifier Bridge Rectifier
Vm Vm Vm
Peak Current Im
Rf + RL Rf + RL 2R f + R L
Im 2Im 2Im
DC load Current Idc
π π π
Im Im Im
RMS load Current Irms
2 √2 √2
Vm ⁄π 2Vm ⁄π 2Vm ⁄π
DC load Voltage Vdc R R 2R
1 + Rf 1 + Rf 1+ R f
L L L
Vm ⁄2 Vm ⁄√2 Vm ⁄√2
RMS load Voltage Vrms R R 2R
1 + Rf 1 + Rf 1+ R f
L L L

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 40

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

0.406 0.812 0.812

Efficiency ηr R R 2R
1 + Rf 1 + Rf 1+ R f
L L L

Ripple Factor γ 1.21 0.483 0.483

Peak Inverse Voltage PIV Vm 2Vm Vm

Capacitor filter circuit

➢ Capacitor filter is used to reduce the ripple content present in the rectified output. It is done
by connecting a capacitor in parallel with RL.
➢ Fig.1.24 shows the half wave rectifier with capacitor filter.

Fig.1.24: Half-wave rectifier with capacitor filter

➢ During positive half cycle of the ac supply, the diode conducts (on state) and charges the
capacitor to the peak value of Vm of the transformer secondary voltage.
➢ When the transformer secondary voltage falls below Vm the diode stops conducting (off
state).
➢ Therefore capacitor stars discharging through RL and the voltage on capacitor decreases.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 41

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig.1.25: Output voltage waveform of Half-wave rectifier with and without capacitor filter
➢ The capacitor discharges until the diode starts conducting again and charges the capacitor
in the next positive half-cycle of ac supply.
Vr(p-p) is peak-peak ripple voltage on capacitor
tc is charging time of capacitor
td is discharging time of capacitor
T = tc + td time period of output waveform
➢ In the fig.1.25 the dotted line shows the output of the rectifier without capacitor filter,
where vo varies between zero and Vm.
➢ When the filter is connected the output vo varies between Vm – Vr(p-p) and Vm.
➢ Similarly the waveform obtained from a full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter is as shown
in the fig.1.27.

Fig.1.26: Full-wave rectifier with capacitor filter

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 42

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Fig.1.27: Output voltage waveform of full-wave rectifier with and without capacitor filter
➢ Similarly the waveform obtained from a full-wave bridge rectifier with capacitor filter is
as shown in the fig.1.29.

Fig.1.28: Full-wave bridge rectifier with capacitor filter

Fig.1.29: Output voltage waveform of full-wave bridge rectifier with and without capacitor filter

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 43

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

ZENER DIODE:

Zener diode is a highly doped PN junction diode, designed to operate in Zener Breakdown Voltage
(Vz) in the reverse biased condition, where current is limited only by external resistance and the
power dissipation of the diode.
In the forward bias direction, the zener diode behaves like an ordinary diode. In the reverse bias
mode, only leakage reverse current flows until Vz is reached.
When Vz occurs there is a sharp increase in reverse current (Iz). Varying amount of reverse current
(IR) can pass through the zener diode without damaging while Vz across it remains relatively
constant.
This property of zener diode can be used for voltage regulation. Its circuit symbol and
approximated model is shown in fig.

Fig.1.30 Circuit symbol, Ideal and Practical Approximated models of zener diode

PN JUNCTION BREAKDOWN:
Electrical break down of semiconductor can occur due to two different phenomena. 1) Zener
breakdown and 2) Avalanche breakdown
Differences between Zener breakdown and Avalanche breakdown Zener breakdown:

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 44

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

VI CHARACTERISTICS OF ZENER DIODE:

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 45

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Zener diode voltage regulator:

➢ The output of a rectifier with capacitor filter varies with the changes in the load current and
line voltage hence it is called as variable dc or unregulated dc.
➢ A voltage regulator is a circuit which accepts unregulated dc input and provides a constant
dc output voltage irrespective of the changes in the load current and line voltage as shown
in fig.1.30.
➢ Zener diode operates in the reverse break down region and has a constant voltage VZ across
its terminal.
➢ The unregulated dc input voltage Vi must be greater than the zener breakdown voltage VZ.

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 46

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

ZENER DIODE SPECIFICATIONS:

Zener breakdown voltage (VZ): It is a reverse-biased voltage at which the zener diode conducts
heavily, without damage. The manufacturers specify the value of VZ at the rated zener current, IZ.
Zener Current Iz (max): It is the maximum zener current at the rated zener voltage VZ, beyond
this value zener diode may be damaged due to excess power dissipation.
Zener Current Iz (min): It is the minimum zener current required for the diode to breakdown.
Power Dissipation: Power dissipation in the zener diode is the product of VZ and reverse current,
IZ, with maximum power ratings ranging from 150 mW to 50 W.
Zener diodes are available for user from 1.8 to 200 volts as voltage regulators, with power ratings
of 0.25, 0.4Conditions for proper operation of Zener regulator
1. The zener diode must operate in the breakdown region ( between IZ(max) and IZ(min))
2. The zener diode should not be allowed to exceed PZ(max), otherwise it will be destroyed due to

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 47

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

excessive heat.
3. Applied unregulated input voltage must be greater than VZ.
Applications of Zener Diodes:
1. Voltage stabilizers or regulators (in shunt mode)
2. Surge suppressors for device protection
3. Peak clippers and switching operations
4. In meter protection applications, 0.5, 1, 2, 3, and 5 watts.
Design: If the voltage across the zener diode exceeds a certain value it would draw excessive
current from the supply. The series resistor RS value is designed to fix the current through the zener
diode, its value is chosen from the following equations.

Problem
1. Design a Zener diode voltage regulator to meet the following requirements
Unregulated dc input voltage, Vi = 13 – 17V
Load current, IL = 10mA
Regulated output voltage, Vo = 10V

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 48

 Basic of Electronics [22BBEE203]

Minimum zener current, 𝐈𝐙𝐦𝐢𝐧 = 5mA

Maximum power dissipation in zener, 𝐏𝐃𝐦𝐚𝐱 = 500mW
Maximum power dissipation is
PDmax = PD = ILmax VZ
PD 500m
IZmax = = = 50mA
VZ 10
Maximum current through the Zener diode is
Vimax − Vo
IZmax = − ILmin
R
17 − 10
50𝑚 = −0
R
7
R=
50m
R = 140Ω
Minimum current through the Zener diode is
Vimin − Vo
IZmin = − ILmax
R

13 − 10
5𝑚 = − 10m
R
3
R=
15m
R = 200Ω
Combining above we can write
140Ω < R < 200Ω
140 + 200
R= = 170Ω
2
Vo 10
RL = = = 1kΩ
IL 10m

2. A 24V, 600mW Zener diode is used for providing a 24V stabilized supply to a variable
load. If the input voltage is 32V, calculate
i. The value of series resistance required
ii. Diode current when the load is 1200Ω

Mrs. Pratheksha Rai N, Asst. Professor, AJIET Page 49