Early Greek and Roman Cosmology for writing a huge book called the Almagest.

This book,
which means “The Greatest” in Arabic, wasn’t just about
Cosmology is the study of the universe—its structure,
Ptolemy’s own work—it also preserved the ideas and
origin, and how everything in it is organized. The word
data of earlier Greek astronomers like Hipparchus. In
itself comes from Greek roots, showing how influential
fact, most of what we know today about early Greek
Greek thinkers were in shaping early ideas about the
astronomy comes from this book.
cosmos.
Ptolemy’s biggest contribution was a geometric model
Long before telescopes were invented, ancient people
of the solar system that could predict the positions of
had to rely on what they could see with their eyes to
the planets at any time. Hipparchus had collected a lot
understand the universe. They combined their
of observational data, but it was Ptolemy who used that
observations of the sky with religious beliefs and
data and added his own observations to build a model
philosophical ideas to form early models of the cosmos.
that worked. This Earth-centered (geocentric) model
About 2,000 years before Columbus, educated people became the dominant explanation of the universe for
in the eastern Mediterranean already believed that more than a thousand years, lasting until the time of
Earth is a sphere. This idea likely began with Copernicus.
Pythagoras, a Greek philosopher and mathematician.
One of the challenges in explaining the motion of
He believed that spheres and circles were perfect
planets is that they sometimes appear to move
shapes, and since perfection was associated with the
backward in the sky—this is called retrograde motion.
heavens, Earth was assumed to be spherical, not just
Today, we understand this happens because Earth is also
flat and round. The Greeks also noted that the Moon
moving around the Sun. From our moving point of view,
appears as a sphere, which they took as further support
other planets sometimes appear to loop or drift
for this belief.
backward, just like how a slower car can look like it’s
Aristotle, another influential Greek philosopher (384– moving backward for a moment when you pass it on the
322 BCE), gave clear evidence that Earth is a sphere. highway.
Although the text first says that Aristotle argued Earth
In the passage, Mars is used as an example. Earth and
was “round,” it immediately explains that only a
Mars both orbit the Sun, but Earth moves faster. So, as
spherical object can consistently cast a round shadow
Earth overtakes Mars, Mars seems to reverse direction
during a lunar eclipse. If Earth were just round like a
temporarily when viewed from Earth. This illusion was
disk (2D), then at certain angles its shadow on the Moon
very hard to explain back then, since people believed
would appear flat or shaped differently. But since the
Earth was at the center of the universe and didn't move.
shadow is always curved, this proves Earth has a three-
But Ptolemy’s model cleverly tried to solve this by using
dimensional spherical shape.
complex geometry.
Aristotle also explained other observations to support
Even though we now know the Sun is at the center,
this idea:
Ptolemy’s geocentric model was impressive for its time
 The phases of the Moon happen because we because it could accurately predict planetary positions,
see different parts of its sunlit side as it orbits even if the reasoning behind it was later proven wrong.
Earth.

 The Sun must be farther away than the Moon,

Retrograde Motion and Ptolemy’s Solution
because sometimes the Moon passes in front of
the Sun, causing a solar eclipse. When we observe the planets in the night sky over
weeks or months, they normally move eastward
compared to the background stars. But sometimes,
Ptolemy’s Model of the Solar System planets like Mars appear to move backward (westward)
for a short time—this is called retrograde motion.
Claudius Ptolemy was one of the most important
astronomers during the Roman era. He lived in Today, we know this happens because Earth and the
Alexandria around the year 140 CE and is best known other planets orbit the Sun at different speeds. Earth
moves faster than Mars, so when Earth passes by Mars To solve this, Ptolemy introduced a more complex
in its orbit, Mars looks like it's moving backward in the system using two main parts:
sky for a short time—even though it’s still moving
1. Epicycle – A small circle where the planet
forward in space. This is just an illusion, kind of like
moves.
when you pass a slower car on the highway and it looks
like it's moving backward from your window. 2. Deferent – A larger circle around which the
epicycle moves, centered near Earth.
This backward loop can be seen in Figure 5 (described in
the passage). At positions B to D, Earth is overtaking So basically, a planet moves in a small circle (epicycle),
Mars, so Mars appears to go backwards (retrograde). and that small circle moves along a bigger circle
After Earth passes, Mars returns to its normal eastward (deferent) around Earth.
motion at position E.
 When the planet is at position x on the epicycle,
But during Ptolemy’s time, people still believed Earth it moves in the same direction as the deferent
was the center of the universe (geocentric model) and → from Earth, it looks like normal forward
didn’t move. So he had to explain this strange planet motion.
behavior while assuming Earth was still.
 When the planet is at position y, it moves
To do that, Ptolemy used a system of circles-on-circles: against the direction of the deferent → from
Earth, it appears to move backward, or in
 Each planet moved in a small circle called an
retrograde.
epicycle.
But even that wasn’t enough to perfectly match what
 That epicycle itself moved along a larger circle
they saw in the sky. So Ptolemy added more tweaks:
called a deferent, centered near Earth.
 He didn’t center the deferent circle exactly on
This complex model allowed Ptolemy to predict the
Earth—he offset it a little to match real motion.
planets' positions and even reproduce retrograde
motion—though the explanation wasn't physically  He also added a point called the equant, from
correct. It was mathematically clever, but visually which the motion of the epicycle’s center
complicated and hard to understand today. appears uniform. This made the motion more
accurate—but even more complicated.
Still, for his time, Ptolemy’s system was brilliant,
especially since he had no knowledge of Earth's motion Despite its complexity, Ptolemy’s model worked well
or gravity. As King Alfonso X humorously said: for predicting planets’ positions, and it was accepted as
the official model of the universe for over 1000 years—
"If the Lord Almighty had consulted me before creating
especially in the Muslim world and later in Christian
the universe, I would have suggested something
Europe.
simpler."
Today, we know that planets orbit the Sun in ellipses,
not circles, and that Earth is not the center of the
Ptolemy’s Model (Figure 6) universe. But in Ptolemy’s time, without modern tools,
his work was a huge mathematical achievement, even if
In ancient times, astronomers like Ptolemy believed that
it wasn’t scientifically accurate.
Earth was the center of the universe and that
everything in the sky moved in perfect circles—because
circles were considered divine and "perfect."
1. Why did Copernicus propose a new model?
However, when they carefully observed the planets,
Copernicus proposed a new model because the existing
they noticed that planets didn't move in simple, smooth
Ptolemaic (Earth-centered) system had become too
circles. Instead, they would sometimes speed up, slow
complex and inaccurate in predicting the positions of
down, or even appear to move backward (retrograde
planets. He wanted to develop a simpler and more
motion). This didn’t fit with the simple Earth-centered
elegant theory to better explain planetary motion. He
circular model.
believed that placing the Sun at the center (heliocentric  He studied the surface of the Moon, observing
model) would account for the observed motions more mountains and craters, which challenged the
naturally and with more symmetry than the Earth- idea that celestial bodies were perfect and
centered model. unchanging.

 He showed that objects in motion stay in

motion unless acted upon, helping to explain
2. How did Copernicus defend his model against the
why people don’t feel Earth’s movement.
Ptolemaic system that was widely accepted at the
time? These findings gave strong observational evidence
against the geocentric model and helped shift scientific
Copernicus defended his model by arguing that the
support toward the heliocentric theory.
apparent motions of the Sun and planets could be
better explained if Earth and the other planets revolved
around the Sun. He showed that the retrograde motion
During the Middle Ages, scientific progress in Europe
of planets and the phases of Venus were easier to
had slowed, but the rise of Islam led to the preservation
understand under the heliocentric model. He also
and expansion of Greek astronomical ideas. These works
reasoned that the motion of the stars and the Sun could
were translated into Arabic and later rediscovered by
be illusions caused by Earth’s own movement—rotation
Europeans during the Renaissance. Among the most
and revolution—rather than assuming the entire
influential rediscovered texts was Almagest, written by
universe moved around Earth. He emphasized that his
Ptolemy, which presented a geocentric model where
model had more beauty, order, and simplicity than the
Earth was the unmoving center of the universe.
Ptolemaic system.
In the 1500s, Nicolaus Copernicus, a Polish cleric and
scholar, challenged this long-standing belief. He
3. Why did Copernicus fail to prove that the Earth proposed a revolutionary idea: that the Sun—not the
revolves around the Sun? Earth—was the center of the solar system, and that
Earth, along with other planets, revolved around it. This
Copernicus failed to prove the heliocentric model
idea, known as the heliocentric model, was a major
because he lacked the observational tools needed to
shift from the geocentric (Earth-centered) model.
provide direct evidence. For example, telescopes had
Copernicus explained that this new model could more
not yet been invented, so phenomena like the full
simply and elegantly account for the complex motions
phases of Venus couldn’t be observed. Also, people
of the planets, especially their occasional retrograde
could not yet detect stellar parallax—a shift in the
(backward) movements in the sky. In his major work De
position of stars due to Earth’s movement—which
Revolutionibus Orbium Coelestium, published in 1543,
would have been strong proof that Earth moves. His
Copernicus argued that Earth is a planet like the others,
theory remained largely a mathematical model, not
and that only the Moon orbits Earth.
backed by physical evidence at the time.
Although Copernicus retained the ancient idea that
planets must move in perfect circles and could not yet
4. What were the contributions of Galileo in proving provide proof that Earth moves, his model was cleaner
the validity of the heliocentric model? and more orderly than Ptolemy’s. For example, it placed
the planets in the correct order from the Sun and
Galileo made several key discoveries using his telescope suggested that planets closer to the Sun orbit faster.
that supported Copernicus’ heliocentric model: However, since people couldn’t yet observe stellar
 He observed the phases of Venus, proving that parallax (a shift in star positions caused by Earth's
Venus orbits the Sun, not Earth. movement), and because direct physical evidence was
lacking, the heliocentric model wasn’t widely accepted
 He discovered four moons orbiting Jupiter, right away.
showing that not everything in the heavens
revolves around Earth.
A century later, Galileo Galilei, an Italian scientist, Although there is no exact start date, the Scientific
provided strong support for the Copernican system. Revolution is often said to have begun around 1543,
Galileo built his own telescope and turned it toward the with the publication of Nicolaus Copernicus’s De
heavens. With it, he made groundbreaking discoveries revolutionibus orbium coelestium (On the Revolutions of
that challenged ancient beliefs. He saw that the Moon the Heavenly Spheres). This work proposed a
had mountains and craters, showing it was not a heliocentric model of the universe, placing the Sun at
perfect, unchanging sphere. He discovered four moons the center instead of the Earth. From there, the
orbiting Jupiter, proving that not all celestial objects movement grew through the 17th century and
orbit Earth. He also observed that Venus went through continued into the 18th century, overlapping with the
phases like the Moon, which could only be explained if Age of Enlightenment.
Venus orbited the Sun—something the geocentric
What is the role of the scientific method?
model could not account for.
At the heart of the Scientific Revolution was the
Galileo also made significant advances in physics. He
scientific method—a systematic way of gaining
showed that objects in motion remain in motion unless
knowledge based on empirical evidence, observation,
acted upon by a force, helping to explain why we don’t
experimentation, and reasoning. Thinkers like Francis
feel Earth’s movement. He also proved that falling
Bacon emphasized inductive reasoning, encouraging
objects accelerate at a constant rate, regardless of
scientists to gather data first and then form conclusions.
weight, contradicting Aristotle’s teachings.
Others, like René Descartes, focused on deductive
Galileo’s evidence strongly favored the heliocentric reasoning and the use of rational thought. The scientific
model, but it brought him into conflict with the Catholic method replaced earlier approaches that relied on
Church, which still supported the geocentric view. He tradition, religious texts, or ancient authorities, like
was eventually tried for heresy and placed under house Aristotle. Over time, this method became the
arrest. Despite this, his work laid the foundation for foundation of all scientific inquiry, ensuring that new
modern science. knowledge was testable, repeatable, and open to
challenge.
Together, Copernicus and Galileo sparked a scientific
revolution. They replaced Earth’s central place in the What “sub-revolutions” were part of it?
universe with a Sun-centered system and showed that
The Scientific Revolution included revolutions within
the cosmos could be understood through observation,
specific fields:
experimentation, and reason. Their ideas marked the
beginning of a new way of thinking—one that viewed  In astronomy, the heliocentric model
nature as understandable and governed by laws that overturned centuries of geocentric belief.
humans could discover.
 In anatomy, scientists like Andreas Vesalius
dissected human cadavers, replacing old ideas
based on animal anatomy.
The Scientific Revolution was a period during the early
modern era that marked the emergence of modern  In physics, Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton
science. It radically transformed humanity’s established the laws of motion and gravitation.
understanding of the natural world by introducing a new
approach to learning—one that emphasized  In chemistry, Robert Boyle challenged alchemy
observation, experimentation, mathematics, and and laid the groundwork for modern chemical
critical reasoning over blind acceptance of authority or science.
tradition. It challenged centuries of established beliefs,  Tools like the telescope, microscope,
particularly those rooted in the works of Aristotle and barometer, and vacuum pump were invented
the Church, and reshaped society’s view of nature, the or improved, dramatically enhancing human
cosmos, and human potential. ability to explore and measure the world.
When and how did it start? Who contributed to the shift from geocentric to
heliocentric model?
Several key individuals transformed our understanding  It encouraged education, literacy, and curiosity
of the solar system: among the public, as scientific knowledge
spread through books, lectures, and public
 Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric
experiments.
model, where Earth and other planets revolve
around the Sun.  It helped create scientific communities and
institutions, like the British Royal Society, which
 Galileo Galilei supported Copernicus through
formalized scientific research.
telescopic observations, discovering the phases
of Venus, moons of Jupiter, and features of the  It laid the intellectual foundation for the
Moon, all of which contradicted the geocentric Industrial Revolution, modern medicine, and
model. technological progress, which transformed
economies and everyday life.
 Johannes Kepler improved the model by
showing that planets move in elliptical orbits,  Most importantly, it changed how people
not perfect circles. viewed themselves: no longer at the center of a
static universe, but as intelligent beings capable
 Isaac Newton ultimately proved the universal
of understanding and shaping their world.
laws of motion and gravity, explaining
planetary motion and fully validating the
heliocentric model.

What were the characteristics of the Age of

Enlightenment, and how did the Scientific Revolution
influence it?

The Age of Enlightenment was a period of intellectual

awakening in the 18th century that emphasized reason,
individual freedom, and scientific progress. The
Scientific Revolution laid the groundwork by:

 Showing that human reason and observation

could uncover truths about nature and society.

 Encouraging empiricism, or the belief that

knowledge comes from experience and
evidence.

 Inspiring thinkers to challenge religious and

political authority, promoting free speech,
secularism, and rational governance.
Science became a model for Enlightenment
ideals—logical, evidence-based, and
progressive.

How was society transformed?

The Scientific Revolution changed society in several

ways:

 It reduced the power of the Church in scientific

matters, replacing faith-based explanations with
evidence-based ones.