INTRODUCTION TO STRUCTURAL ENGINEERING
Structural design is a systematic and iterative process that involves:
1) Identification of intended use and occupancy of a structure – by owner
2) Development of architectural plans and layout – by architect
3) Identification of structural framework – by engineer
4) Estimation of structural loads depending on use and occupancy
5) Analysis of the structure to determine member and connection design forces
6) Design of structural members and connections
7) Verification of design
8) Construction of the building Fabrication & Erection – by steel fabricator and contractor
9) Inspection and Approval – by state building official
STRUCTURAL DESIGN PROCESS
The design of different structures is achieved by performing, in general, two main steps:
a) Determining the different forces acting on the structure using proper methods of structural
analysis and
b) Proportioning all structural members economically, considering the safety, stability,
serviceability and functionality of the structure.
Structural concrete is one of the materials commonly used to design all types of buildings. Its two
component materials, concrete and steel, work together to form structural members that can resist
many types of loadings. The key to its performance lies in strengths that are complementary:
Concrete resists compression and steel reinforcement resists tension forces
OBJECTIVES OF STRUCTURAL DESIGN
The overall goal is to be able to design reinforced concrete structures that are:
• Safe
• Economical
• Efficient
DESIGN DEFINITION
To civil and structural engineers, design is taken to mean the entire planning process for a new
building structure, bridge, tunnel, road, etc., from outline concepts and feasibility studies through
mathematical calculations to working drawings which could show every last nut and bolt in the
project. Together with the drawings there will be bills of quantities, a specification and a contract,
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which will form the necessary legal and organizational framework within which a contractor, under
the supervision of engineers and architects, can construct the scheme.
Loads considered in design include
a) Dead Loads
These are loads that are constant in magnitude and fixed in location throughout the lifetime of the
structure such as: floor fill, finish floor, and plastered ceiling for buildings and wearing surface,
sidewalks, and curbing for bridges.
b) Live Loads
These are loads that are either fully or partially in place or not present at all, may also change in
location; the minimum live loads for which the floors and roof of a building should be designed are
usually specified in building code that governs at the site of construction. Examples include loads
from people (occupants), machinery, furniture etc
c) Environmental loads:
They include Wind, earthquake and snow loads
BASIS OF DESIGN
As far as the design of structures for safety is concerned, it is seen as the process of ensuring that
stresses due to loading at all critical points in a structure have a very low chance of exceeding the
strength of materials used at these critical points.
In design there exist within the structure a number of critical points (e.g. beam mid-spans) where the
design process is concentrated. Because loading varies according to occupancy and environmental
conditions, and because design is an imperfect process, the material stresses will vary about a modal
value (peak value).
In order for the structure to be safe the overlap between material strength and loading, ( the point of
failure) may be minimised by the following distinct design philosophies
a) Permissible stress design
b) Load factor method
c) Limit state design.
a) PERMISSIBLE STRESS DESIGN ( ELASTIC DESIGN)
In permissible stress design, sometimes referred to as modular ratio or elastic design, the stresses in
the structure at working loads are not allowed to exceed a certain proportion of the yield stress of the
construction material, i.e. the stress levels are limited to the elastic range. By assuming that the
stress– strain relationship over this range is linear, it is possible to calculate the actual stresses in the
material concerned. Such an approach formed the basis of the design methods used in CP 114 (the
forerunner of BS 8110) and BS 449 (the forerunner of BS 5950).
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However, although it modelled real building performance under actual conditions, this philosophy
had two major drawbacks. Firstly, permissible design methods sometimes tended to overcomplicate
the design process and also led to conservative solutions.
Secondly, as the quality of materials increased and the safety margins decreased, the assumption that
stress and strain are directly proportional became unjustifiable for materials such as concrete, making
it impossible to estimate the true factors of safety.
b) LOAD FACTOR DESIGN (PLASTIC DESIGN)
Load factor or plastic design was developed to take account of the behaviour of the structure once
the yield point of the construction material had been reached. This approach involved calculating the
collapse load of the structure. The working load was derived by dividing the collapse load by a load
factor.
This approach simplified methods of analysis and allowed actual factors of safety to be calculated.
It was in fact permitted in CP 114 and BS 449 but was slow in gaining acceptance and was
eventually suspended by the more comprehensive limit state approach.
c) LIMIT STATE DESIGN
Originally formulated in the former Soviet Union in the 1930s and developed in Europe in the 1960s,
Limit state design can perhaps be seen as a compromise between the permissible and load factor
methods. It is in fact a more comprehensive approach which takes into account both methods in
appropriate ways. Most modern structural codes of practice are now based on the limit state
approach.
BS 8110 for concrete, BS 5950 for structural steelwork, BS 5400 for bridges and BS 5628 for
masonry are all limit state codes. The principal exceptions are the code of practice for design in
timber, BS 5268, and the old (but still current) structural steelwork code, BS 449, both of which are
permissible stress codes. It should be noted, however, that the Eurocode for timber (EC5), which is
expected to replace BS 5268 is based on limit state principles.
As limit state philosophy forms the basis of the design methods in most modern codes of practice for
structural design, it is essential that the design methodology is fully understood.
Ultimate and serviceability limit states
The aim of limit state design is to achieve acceptable probabilities that a structure will not become
unfit for its intended use during its design life, that is, the structure will not reach a limit state. There
are many ways in which a structure could become unfit for use, including excessive conditions of
bending, shear, compression, deflection and cracking. Each of these mechanisms is a limit state
whose effect on the structure must be individually assessed.
i) Serviceability limit state
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This principally affect the appearance of the structure. Examples are deflection and cracking
others include Excessive vibration, fatigue and fire resistance. The ultimate limit states enable the
designer to calculate the strength of the structure. Serviceability limit states model the behaviour
of the structure at working loads
ii) Ultimate limit state
This are those limit state that may lead to partial or complete collapse of the structure. e.g.
bending, shear and compression.
It is a matter of experience to be able to judge which limit states should be considered in the design
of particular structures. Nevertheless, once this has been done, it is normal practice to base the design
on the most critical limit state and then check for the remaining limit states. For example, for
reinforced concrete beams the ultimate limit states of bending and shear are used to size the beam.
The design is then checked for the remaining limit states, e.g. deflection and cracking. On the other
hand, the serviceability limit state of deflection is normally critical in the design of concrete slabs.
Again, once the designer has determined a suitable depth of slab, he/she must then make sure that the
design satisfies the limit states of bending, shear and cracking.
In assessing the effect of a particular limit state on the structure, the designer will need to assume
certain values for the loading on the structure and the strength of the materials composing the
structure.
This requires an understanding of the concepts of characteristic and design values
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Characteristic value and design values
As stated earlier, when checking whether a particular member is safe, the designer cannot be certain
about either the strength of the material composing the member or, indeed, the load which the
member must carry. The material strength may be less than intended (a) because of its variable
composition, and (b) because of the variability of manufacturing conditions during construction, and
other effects such as corrosion. Similarly the load in the member may be greater than anticipated (a)
because of the variability of the occupancy or environmental loading, and (b) because of unforeseen
circumstances which may lead to an increase in the general level of loading, errors in the analysis,
errors during construction, etc.
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In each case, item (a) is allowed for by using a characteristic value. The characteristic strength is
the value below which the strength lies in only a small number of cases. Similarly the characteristic
load is the value above which the load lies in only a small percentage of cases. In the case of strength
the characteristic value is determined from test results using statistical principles, and is normally
defined as the value below which not more than 5% of the test results fall. However, at this stage
there are insufficient data available to apply statistical principles to loads. Therefore the
characteristic loads are normally taken to be the design loads from other codes of practice, e.g. BS
648 and BS 6399.
The overall effect of items under (b) is allowed for using a partial safety factor: γ m for strength and γf
for load. The design strength is obtained by dividing the characteristic strength by the partial safety
factor for strength
Characteristic strength
Design Strength=
γm
The design load is obtained by multiplying the characteristic load by the partial safety factor for load:
Design Load=Characteristic load × γ f
The value of γ m will depend upon the properties of the actual construction material being used.
Values for γ f depend on other factors
In general, once a preliminary assessment of the design loads has been made it is then possible to
calculate the maximum bending moments, shear forces and deflections in the structure.
The construction material must be capable of withstanding these forces otherwise failure of the
structure may occur, i.e.
Design strength ≥ design load
Simplified procedures for calculating the moment, shear and axial load capacities of structural
elements together with acceptable deflection limits are described in the appropriate codes of practice.
These allow the designer to rapidly assess the suitability of the proposed design.
BASIC STRUCTURAL CONCEPTS AND MATERIAL PROPERTIES
All structures are composed of a number of interconnected elements such as slabs, beams, columns,
walls and foundations. Collectively, they enable the internal and external loads acting on the
structure to be safely transmitted down to the ground. The actual way that this is achieved is difficult
to model and many simplifying, but conservative, assumptions have to be made. For example, the
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degree of fixity at column and beam ends is usually uncertain but, nevertheless, must be estimated as
it significantly affects the internal forces in the element.
Furthermore, it is usually assumed that the reaction from one element is a load on the next and that
the sequence of load transfer between elements occurs in the order: ceiling/floor loads to beams to
columns to foundations to ground.
At the outset, the designer must make an assessment of the future likely level of loading, including
self-weight, to which the structure may be subject during its design life. Using computer methods or
hand calculations the design loads acting on individual elements can then be evaluated. The design
loads are used to calculate the bending moments, shear forces and deflections at critical points along
the elements. Finally, suitable dimensions for the element can be determined. This aspect requires an
understanding of the elementary theory of bending and the behaviour of elements subject to
compressive loading. These steps are summarized in Figure 1.
Figure 1: The design process
DESIGN LOADS ACTING ON STRUCTURES
The loads acting on a structure are divided into three basic types: dead, imposed and wind. Each has
characteristic and design values, which must be estimated as previously discussed. In addition, the
particular combination of loading which is likely to produce the most adverse effect on the structure
in terms of bending moments, shear forces and deflections has to be determined.
DEAD LOADS, Gk, gk
The characteristic dead loads can be estimated using the schedule of weights of building materials
given in BS 648. The symbols Gk and gk are normally used to denote the total and uniformly
distributed characteristic dead loads respectively.
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IMPOSED LOADS Q k, qk
Imposed load, sometimes also referred to as live load, represents the load due to the proposed
occupancy and includes the weights of the occupants, furniture and roof loads including snow. Since
imposed loads tend to be much more variable than dead loads they are more difficult to predict.
WIND LOADS
Wind pressure can either add to the other gravitational forces acting on the structure or, equally well,
exert suction or negative pressures on the structure. Under particular situations, the latter may well
lead to critical conditions and must be considered in design. The characteristic wind loads acting on a
structure can be assessed in accordance with the recommendations given in CP 3: Chapter V: Part 2:
1972 Wind Loads or Part 2 of BS 6399: Code of Practice for Wind Loads.
Wind loading is important in the design of masonry panel walls. However beyond that, wind loading
is not considered further since the emphasis is on the design of elements rather than structures, which
generally involves investigating the effects of dead and imposed loads only.
Example 1: Self Weight of reinforced concrete beam
Calculate the self-weight of a reinforced concrete beam of breadth 300 mm, depth 600 mm and
length 6000 mm.
From BS 648 , unit mass of reinforced concrete is 2400 kg m−3. Assuming that the gravitational
constant is 9.81 m s−2 , the unit weight of reinforced concrete, ρ, is
ρ = 2400 × 10 = 24 000 N m−3 = 24 kN m−3
Hence, the self-weight of beam, SW, is
SW = volume × unit weight
= (0.3 × 0.6 × 6)24 = 25.92 kN
LOAD COMBINATIONS AND DESIGN LOADS
The design loads are obtained by multiplying the characteristic loads by the partial safety factor for
loads, γf . The value for γf depends on several factors including the limit state under consideration,
i.e. ultimate or serviceability, the accuracy of predicting the load and the particular combination of
loading which will produce the worst possible effect on the structure in terms of bending moments,
shear forces and deflections.
In most of the simple structures the worst possible combination will arise due to the maximum dead
and maximum imposed loads acting on the structure together. In such cases, the partial safety factors
for dead and imposed loads are 1.4 and 1.6 respectively and hence the design load is given by
Design load = 1.4Gk + 1.6Qk
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DESIGN LOADS ACTING ON ELEMENTS
Once the design loads acting on the structure have been estimated it is then possible to calculate the
design loads acting on individual elements. This usually requires the designer to make assumptions
regarding the support conditions and how the loads will eventually be transmitted down to the
ground.
In design it is common to assume that all the joints in the structure are pinned and that the sequence
of load transfer occurs in the order: ceiling/floor loads to beams to columns to foundations to ground.
These assumptions considerably simplify calculations and lead to conservative estimates of the
design loads acting on individual elements of the structure.
The actual calculations to determine the forces acting on the elements are best illustrated by a
number of worked examples
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