RB CHEMISTRY CLASSES

Atomic Structure
UNIVERSE
matter
universe
energy
JOHN DALTON’S ATOMIC THEORY
• All matter is made up of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
• All atoms of a specific elements are identical in mass, size, and other
properties. However, atoms of different element exhibit different properties
and vary in mass and size.
• Atoms can neither be created nor destroyed. Furthermore, atoms cannot be
divided into smaller particles.
• Atoms of different elements can combine with each other in fixed whole-
number ratios in order to form compounds.
SUB ATOMIC PARTICLE
Atom

Unstable Composite
Stable
Particle Particle

Alfa
Electron Proton Neutron Neutrino Positron Meson
particle
SUB ATOMIC PARTICLE
Character Electron Proton Neutron
Discovery J.J Thomson Rutherford James
Chadwick
Charge -1.6 x 10-19 C +1.6 x 10-19C Zero
Mass 9.1 x 10-31 Kg 1.673 x 10-27 1.675 x 10-27Kg
Kg
Obtained From Cathode Ray Anode Ray Radioactive
Experiment experiment Phenomenon
PLUM PUDING MODEL
• Given by J J Thomson
• A substance is consists of small
spheres which are having the
radius of about 10-10 m in
diameter.
• The positive charge is spread
uniformly throughout the volume
of sphere called pudding.
ALFA PARTICLE SCATTERING EXP

Rutherford
OBSERVATION
• Most of the α-particles that were bombarded on the gold foil passed through the foil with no
deflection. It indicated that most of the space inside an atom is empty.
• Some of the α-particles were deflected from the gold foil by small angles. This indicated that the
positive charge in an atom is not uniformly distributed. This disproved the J. J. Thomson,
uniformly distributed positive charges from the plum pudding model.
• A very small amount of α-particles (1-2%) were deflected back from the gold foil at a nearly 180°
angle. This indicated that the positive changes are concentrated in a very small volume. The size
of the positively charged particles is very small as compared to the total size of the atom.
RUTHERFORD MODEL
• The positively charged particles are concentrated in a
very small volume as compared to the total size of the
atom. Most of the atom’s mass is also concentrated in
this small volume. Rutherford called this small region
inside that atom a “nucleus”.
• Rutherford proposed that the negatively charged
particles (electrons) are surrounded by the positively
charged nucleus. The electrons move around the
nucleus in a circular path at a high speed. He named
the circular path of electrons “orbit”.
LIMITATION
• According to maxwell's theory, charged particles in a circular
motion will experience acceleration and emit electromagnetic
radiation. So the moving electrons around the nucleus in an atom
should emit electromagnetic radiation. The electromagnetic
radiation will carry energy from the circular motion of the electron
and this will lead to the shrinking of the electron's orbit. This will
end the collapsing of the electron with the nucleus.
• The rutherford theory of atomic structure failed to explain the
electron arrangement in an atom which was a major drawback of
the model.
NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC RADIATION
• Light is an important source of energy according to Newton’s
corpuscular theory it was considered as a stream off particle is
called corpuscles of light .
• These theory could successfully explain phenomena of
reflection and refraction but failed to explain phenomena of
diffraction and interference .
MAXWELL’S WAVE THEORY OF LIGHT
• Light is transmitted in the form of electromagnetic wave .
• These waves are associated with oscillating electric field and
magnetic field . These two fields are perpendicular to each
other and also the direction of propagation .
• Unlike sound waves, electromagnetic waves do not require
any media for their propagation and can travel in vacuum .
EMW
 SOME PARAMETER OF
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVE
WAVE LENGTH ( l )
• The distance between 2 neighbouring Crest or trough of
the wave.
• Unit : m or cm
• 1m=10-9nm
• 1m=10-10A
FREQUENCY (n)
•The number of waves which pass through a
particular point in a second.
•Unit : Hz or cycle per sec
VELOCITY (C)
• The distance travelled by a wave in a second.
•𝑐 = υ λ
• C=3 X 108 m/s
WAVE NUMBER
• The number of wave length per unit length .
• Unit : Cm-1 or m-1
ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM
LIMITATION OF WAVE, THEORY OF
RADIATION
•Fail to explain the following phenomena –
• Black body radiation.
• Photoelectric effect.
• Atomic spectrum.
PARTICLE NATURE OF ELECTROMAGNETIC
RADIATION.
COLOUR OF BODY
BLACK BODY RADIATION.
• An ideal body which is perfect absorber and perfect emitter
of radiation is called blackbody .
• The radiation emitted by such a body is called black body
radiation.
EXAMPLE OF BLACKBODY.
• When a body is heated it becomes red hot. In Other words, It emits
red colour light .
• As the temperature is further increases , The colour of the radiation
emitted Change from Red to yellow to white and finally to purple as
the temperature becomes very high.
LIMITATION
• According to classical wave theory, the wavelength of emitted
radiation should have remained the same. However, intensity might
have changed with rise in temperature.
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
•Max Planck to propose a new theory of
radiation known as quantum theory of
radiation.
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
1. Radiant energy is emitted or absorbed not continuously but
discontinuously in the form of small packets of energy called quanta.
Each wave packets of energy or quanta is associated with definite
amount of energy.
In case of light the quanta of energy is called photon.
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
2. The amount of energy associated with a quantum of radiation is
proportional to frequency of radiation.
𝐸∝ ν
𝐸 = ℎν
h=6.625 x 10-34 J S
PLANCK’S QUANTUM THEORY
3. A body can emit or absorb energy only in term of the
integral multiple of quantum.
𝐸 = 𝑛ℎν (𝑛 = 1,2,3,4 … … … )
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
PROBLEM
PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
Henrich Rudolf hertz performed an experiment and
observed that when a beam of light of suitable
wavelength or frequency is allowed to fall on the
surface of a metal , electrons are emitted from the
surface of the metal .This phenomena of emission of
Electrons is known as photoelectric effect.
The Electrons emitted are known as photoelectrons.
THE RESULTS OF THESE EXPERIMENTS ARE
AS FOLLOWS
• The number of Electrons ejected is proportional to the intensity or brightness of light.
• For each metal, This is a characteristic minimum frequency , Also 𝜈𝜊 (known as
threshold frequency) , below which photoelectric effect is not observed.
• At a frequency 𝜈 > 𝜈𝜊 the ejected electrons come out with certain kinetic energy.
• The kinetic energies of these electrons increases with an increase in frequency of the
light used.
EXPLANATION OF PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
• Electrons in metals are held by some attractive forces. To overcome these forces certain minimum amount of
energy is required which is characteristic of the metal. This is called photoelectric work function (W0 or φ) .
• Now to cause ejection of Electrons, the photons of incident light should have energy equal to greater than work
function. We know from the quantum theory that energy of photon is directly proportional to frequency of the
radiation. So the incident photons should have certain minimum frequency call threshold frequency or critical
frequency . 𝑊0 = ℎ𝜈𝜊
• If frequency of incident photon is less than This threshold frequency , The energy of photon will be less than the
minimum energy required to eject the electrons and hence no electrons would be ejected no matter what the
intensity of the radiation is or for how long the radiation occur .
• If the photon has energy more than the energy required to remove the electron then each such photon of light on it
collision with the electron at the surface disappears to overcome the binding energy of electron. The excess energy
is taken up by the electron as its kinetic energy .

• Since total energy is conserved , ℎ𝜈 = ℎ𝜈𝜊 + Kinetic energy

CONCLUSION
• Scenes for a particular metal threshold frequency and plank constant are
constant. So kinetic energy of photoelectrons is directly proportional to
frequency.
• Kinetic energy of photoelectrons is independent of intensity because
increases in intensity does not affect the energy of photons, Rather it Simply
increases the number of photons Falling on the surface of metal and hence
increase the number of photoelectrons.
ATOMIC SPECTRA
• Atomic spectra is the
study of atoms (and
atomic ions) through
their interaction with
electromagnetic
radiation.
ABSORPTION SPECTRUM
• A Spectrum of electromagnetic radiation transmitted
through a substance showing dark lines or bond due
to absorption at specific wavelengths.
EMISSION SPECTRUM
• When a electromagnetic radiations with matter , atom and
molecules may absorb energy and attain higher energy state
is called excited state .
• In excited state they are unstable .
• Emit radition in various region of Electromagnetic spectrum
and transit to lower energy level .
HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
• Balmer showed in 1885 that if the spectral lines are expressed in terms of wave
number , Then the lines in the variable region (Balmer) series obey the formula.

1 1 1
•𝜈 = = 𝑅𝐻 × 2
𝑍 ( 2 − 2 ) n=3,4,5………….
𝜆 2 𝑛
HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
• Later on Rydberg gave a more
general formula Which is
applicable to all the series in
the hydrogen spectrum.
1 2 1 1
• 𝜈 = = 𝑅𝐻 × 𝑍 ( 2 − 2)
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2
𝑛1 𝑛2 Series Region

1 2,3,4,5,6,7….. Lyman Series UV region

2 3,4,5,6,7….. Balmer Visible

3 4,5,6,7….. paschen IR

5,6,7….. IR
4 Bracket

6,7….. IR
5 Pfund

7….. IR
6 Humphrey
BOHR MODEL FOR HYDROGEN ATOM
• The electron in the hydrogen atom revolves around the nucleus only in certain selective circular orbits.
These orbits are associated with definite energies and are also called energy shells or energy levels.
• As long as the electrons remains in the particular orbit it does not lose or gain energy it means that energy of
an electron is a particular orbit remains constant that is why the orbits are also called stationary states .

• Only those orbits are permitted in which the angular momentum of the electron is a whole number multiple of
h/2P .
• When energy from some external source is supplied to the electron, Eat me jump to some higher energy level
by absorbing a definite amount of energy. When the electron jump back to the lower energy level it radiates
some amount of energy in the form of a photon of radiation such that
• ∆𝐸 = 𝐸2 − 𝐸1 = ℎ𝜈
EXPLANATION OF HYDROGEN SPECTRUM
ENERGY OF AN ELECTRON IN A PARTICULAR
ORBIT
𝑍2 • H (Z=1), He+(Z=2) , Li2+(Z=3) , Be3+(Z=4)
• 𝐸𝑛 = −13.6 × 𝑒𝑣/𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚
𝑛2
• Ground state , n=1
𝑍2
• 𝐸𝑛 = −2.18 × 10−18 × 𝐽/𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚 • Fast excited state , n=2
𝑛2

• 𝐸𝑛 = −1312 ×
𝑍2
𝐾𝐽/𝑚𝑜𝑙 • Second excited state , n=3
𝑛2
RADIUS OF ORBIT

𝑛 2
•𝑟𝑛 = 0.529 × Aሶ
𝑍
VELOCITY OF ORBIT
6 𝑍
•𝑉𝑛 = 2.18 × 10 × 𝑚/𝑠
𝑛
LIMITATION OF BOHR MODEL
• Bohr theory does not explain the spectrum of multi electron atom .
𝑛ℎ
• Why the angular momentum of revolving electron is equal 2Π Has not been explained by Bohr’s theory .

• Bohr Inter related quantum theory of relation and classical law of physics without any theoretical
explanation .
• Bohr’s theory does not explain the fine structure of spectral lines. Feeling structure of the spectral line is
obtained when spectrum is viewed by spectroscope of more resolution power .
• Bohr’s theory does not explain the splitting of spectral lines in the presence of magnetic effect (Zemman’s
effects) or electric effect (Stark’s effect)
RYDBERG EQUATION
1 2 1 1
•𝜈 = = 𝑅𝐻 × 𝑍 ( 2 − 2 )
𝜆 𝑛1 𝑛2
MAXIMUM WAVENUMBER OR MINIMUM WAVELENGTH

1 𝑍2
• 𝜐ҧ = = 𝑅 ×
𝜆 𝑛2
•n1= n
•n2= ∞
MINIMUM WAVE NUMBER OR MAXIMUM WAVELENGTH

1 2 1 1
•𝜈 = = 𝑅𝐻 × 𝑍 ( 2 − )
2
𝜆 𝑛 𝑛+1
•n1= n
•n2= n+1
DUAL NATURE OF LIGHT
• Einstein had suggested in 1905 That light has dual nature, that is, wave nature
as well as particle nature .
• The photoelectric effect could be explained considering that electromagnetic
radiations consist of small packets of energy called quanta. These packets of
energy can be treated as particles.
• On the other , hand radiation exhibit phenomena of interference and defraction
which indicate that they possess wave nature.
WAVE LENGTH OF PHOTON

ℎ
•𝜆 =
𝑚𝑐
WEB MECHANICAL MODEL OF AN ATOM
• These model consist of following
• (a) de-Broglie Concept (Dual nature of matter)
• (b) Heisenberg’s uncertainty principle
de-BROGLIE CONCEPT
In 1924, a french physicist, louis de-broglie suggested that if
the nature of light is both that of a particle and of a wave, then
this dual behavior should be true also for the matter.
ℎ
𝜆=
𝑚𝑣
VERIFICATION OF DUAL NATURE OF ELECTRONS

• Davison and German experiment in 1927

BOHR'S THEORY AND DE-BROGLIE CONCEPT

2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛𝜆
ℎ
2𝜋𝑟𝑛 = 𝑛
𝑚𝑣
ℎ
m𝑣𝑟 = 𝑛
2𝜋
HEISENBERG’S UNCERTAINTY PRINCIPLE
• It is impossible to measure simultaneously both the position and velocity or
momentum of a microscopic particle with absolutely accuracy or certainty.
ℎ
Δ𝑋 × Δ𝑝 ≥
4Π
ℎ
Δ𝑋 × 𝑚Δ𝑣 ≥
4Π
CLASSICAL MODEL VS QUANTUM MODEL
CONCEPT OF ORBITALS
•An orbital may be defined as that region of
space around the nucleus where the
probability of finding an electron is
maximum.
DIFFERENT TYPE OF ORBITALS
PROPERTY OF ORBITAL

Size

Shape
Orbital
Orientation

spin
QUANTUM MECHANICAL MODEL OF ATOM
• Quantum mechanics is a theoretical science that takes into account the dual
Nature of matter.
• In this model behavior of electron in an atom is described by an equation known
as Schrodinger Wave equation.
Ψ = 𝑤𝑎𝑣𝑒 function
• Ψ is amplitude of the electron wave and is called wave function.
QUANTUM NUMBER
Ψ
Principle Magnetic
Quantum Quntaum
number (n) number (m)
Azimuthal
quantum
number (l)

In order to designate the electron , an additional quantum number called spin

quantum number .
PROPERTY OF ORBITAL
Principle
Size
quantum number

Azimuthal
Shape
quantum number
Orbital
Magnetic
Orientation
Quantum number

Spin quantum
Spin
number
CONCEPT OF SHELL , SUB-SHELL AND ORBITAL
Floor Flat Room Identify

• Shell • subshell • Orbital • Spin of

Electron
PRINCIPAL QUANTUM NUMBER (n)
• It determines to the energy of an electrons .
• Determines the average distance of an electron from the nucleus.
• The principal energy level or shell the electrons.
• n=1,2,3,4,5……etc
AZIMUTHAL QUANTUM NUMBER(l)
• (l) keeps the sublevel or sub shell in which electron is located.
• Determines the shape of orbital.
• Value of (l) may have all possible whole number values from 0 to (n-
1) for each principal energy level.

Value of l
0 1 2 3 4

Sub-shell
s p d f g
n l Sub - shell

1 0 1S

2 0,1 2S , 2P

3 0,1,2 3S , 3P , 3d

4 0 , 1 , 2 , 3 4S , 4P , 4d , 4f
MAGNETIC QUANTUM NUMBER(m)
• Different orientation of electron orbital in a particular subshell.
• It is depends on the value of l .
• The possible value of m range from – l through 0 to +l .
• Thus , in a subshell , the number of orbital is equal to 2l+1
l Subshell Orbital(m)

0 S 0

1 P -1 0 +1

2 d -2 -1 0 +1 +2

3 f -3 -2 -1 0 +1 +2 +3
SPIN QUANTUM NUMBER(s)
• Only two value which are +1/2 and -1/2 .
• +1/2 = clockwise spin ( )
• -1/2 = Anti- clockwise ( )
PAULI’S EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
•No two electrons in an atom can have same
value for all the four quantum numbers.
 AUFBAU RULE
• The electrons are added progressively to the
various orbitals in their order of increasing
energies starting with the orbital of lowest
energy.

• Energies of various orbitals

1s<2s<2p<3s<3p<4s<3d<4p
ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAMS
• A diagram representing relative energies of various orbitals in an
atomic is called energy level diagram.
(A) ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM OF HYDROGEN ATOM
• All the orbitals of a particular energy level
have same energy in hydrogen and
hydrogen like atoms called degenerate
orbitals.
• An atom having a single electron is
principle quantum number (n) is most
important in determining of the orbitals.
(B) ENERGY LEVEL DIAGRAM OF MULTI ELECTRON ATOMS

• In a multi electron atom, energy of electron is determined not only by

principle quantum number but also by azimuthal quantum number.
• Energy of orbitals depends upon (n+l)
HUND’S RULE OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY
• The pairing of electrons in the orbitals of a particular subshell (p,d ,f)
do not take place until all the orbitals of the sub-shell are singly
occupied.
ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
EXCEPTION OF AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
• In some cases it is seen that the electronic configuration is slightly
different from the arrangement given AUFBAU principle. A simple
region behind this is that half field And fulfilled subshell have got
extra stability.
EXCEPTION OF AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
VALENCE ELECTRONIC CONFIGURATION
_2 _14 _10 1_6
• 𝑛𝑠 1 < 𝑛−2 𝑓1 < 𝑛−1 𝑑1 < 𝑛𝑝
ANGULAR MOMENTUM
𝑛ℎ
• Angular momentum of a revolving electron is , 𝑚𝑣𝑟 =
2𝜋
ℎ
• The orbital angular momentum , 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑙(𝑙 + 1)
2𝜋
ℎ
• Spin angular momentum , 𝑚𝑣𝑟 = 𝑆(𝑆 + 1)
2𝜋
DIFFERENT TYPE OF ORBITALS
SHAPE OF S - ORBITAL
• Spherically symmetrical
about the nucleus.
• Probability of finding electron
is same in all directions from
the nucleus.
SHAPE OF P ORBITALS
• P shub shell have three orbitals called as Px , Py and Pz .
• Each P orbital has dumbbell shape.
•
SHAPE OF d ORBITALS
• d subshell have five orbitals called as
dxy , dyz , dxz , dx2-y2 and dz2 .
• Four of the d orbitals dxy , dyz , dxz , dx2-y2
Contains four lobes where fifth orbital
dZ2 Consist of only two lobes.
• Each d orbital has doubled dumbbell
shape.
NODE AND NODAL PLANES
• It is point /line/ plane /surface in which probability of finding electron is
0.
• They are of two type-
• (a) Radial nodes / Spherical nodes = n-l-1
• (b) Angular nodes / number of nodal planes = l
• total number of nodes = (n-1)
RADIAL NODE AND NODAL PLANE OF S ORBITAL
• The probability of one is electron is found to be maximum near the nucleus
and decreases as the distance from the nucleus increases.
• In case of two 2s electrons , the probability is gain maximum near the
nucleus and then decreases to 0 As the distance from the nucleus
increases.
• The intermediate region where the probability is 0 is called a node.
• Angular nodes or Nodal planes are absent .
RADIAL NODE AND NODAL PLANE OF P ORBITAL

• Radial node of P orbitals

Orbital Radial node

2pz 0
3pz 1
4pz 2
NODAL PLANES OF P ORBITALS
RADIAL NODE AND NODAL PLANE OF d ORBITAL

• Radial node of d orbitals

Orbital Radial node

3dxy 0

4dxy 1
NODAL PLANES OF d ORBITALS
SCHRODINGER WAVE EQUATION
2 2 2 2
𝑑 Ψ 𝑑 Ψ 𝑑 Ψ 8𝜋 𝑚
+ + + 𝐸 − 𝑉 Ψ = 0
𝑑𝑥 2 𝑑𝑦 2 𝑑𝑧 2 ℎ2
Where x , y and z Are the three space coordinates .
m is the mass of the electron.
E is The total energy of electron.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF Ψ
• Ψ(wave function) = Amplitude of electron wave
=probability amplitude
• It has no physical significance.
 SIGNIFICANCE OF Ψ2

• For light radiation , amplitude2 gives the intensity of light.

• |Ψ|2 = Intensity of the electron at any point .
= Probability density
RADIAL PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION
CURVE
RADIAL PROBABILITY DENSITY CURVE