Dams and Hydraulic Structures

Prepared By:
Dr. Vijendra Kumar
Assistant Professor
MIT WPU-Pune
 Content- Unit-1
Introduction to dams, Dam Safety and Instrumentation

Introduction, Different terms related to dams, Selection of

site for dam, Factors governing selection of type of dam,
Classification of dams, Objectives of dam safety and
instrumentation, Types of different instruments for dam
safety.
 Introduction to dams
 Dams are engineering structures built across rivers or streams to control water flow, store water,
generate hydroelectric power, and manage water resources for various purposes such as irrigation,
industrial use, and domestic supply.
 These structures have been an integral part of human civilization for thousands of years, with
evidence of early dams found in ancient civilizations like Mesopotamia and Egypt.
Key features of dams:
 Water storage: One of the primary functions of
dams is to create a reservoir by impounding
water. This stored water can be released as
needed to meet various requirements such as
irrigation during dry periods or to provide a
steady flow for downstream communities.

 Flood control: Dams help mitigate the impact

of floods by regulating the flow of water during
heavy rainfall or snowmelt. They can store
excess water during heavy rainfall and
gradually release it, reducing downstream
flooding.

 Hydroelectric power generation: Many dams

are equipped with turbines that harness the
potential energy of stored water to produce
electricity. This is known as hydroelectric
power generation, and it's a renewable and
clean energy source.
 Irrigation: Dams provide a reliable water supply
for agriculture, allowing farmers to irrigate their
fields and improve crop yield, particularly in
areas where rainfall is insufficient.

 Water supply: Dams serve as a vital source of

water for domestic, industrial, and municipal
needs. They can store water during wet seasons
and release it during dry periods, ensuring a
consistent water supply for communities.

 Recreation and tourism: Dams and their

reservoirs often offer recreational opportunities
such as boating, fishing, and water sports.
Additionally, the scenic beauty of dam sites can
attract tourists and boost local economies.
 Different terms related to dams
 Reservoir: A reservoir is a large artificial lake
created by the dam to store water. It serves as
a water storage facility to regulate the flow
downstream and meet various needs, such as
irrigation, water supply, and hydroelectric
power generation.

 Spillway: A spillway is a structure or channel

designed to release excess water from the
reservoir when it reaches its full capacity. This
prevents the dam from overflowing and
causing damage downstream during heavy
rainfall or floods.

 Turbine: A turbine is a device installed inside

the dam to convert the potential energy of
water stored in the reservoir into mechanical
energy. This mechanical energy is then used to
generate electricity in hydroelectric power
plants.
 Powerhouse: The powerhouse is a building located
at the base of the dam or nearby, where the turbines
and generators are housed. It is the central facility for
hydroelectric power generation.

 Gate: Gates are movable barriers or valves installed

in the dam to control the flow of water. They can be
opened or closed to adjust the water level in the
reservoir or manage downstream flow.
Power House
 Crest: The crest is the top of the dam, representing
its highest point. It helps contain the water within the
reservoir and prevents water from flowing over the
dam.

 Embankment: An embankment is a type of dam

constructed using compacted soil, rock, and other
materials. It is cost-effective and often used in areas
where suitable construction materials are available.
 Foundation: The foundation refers to the natural
ground or rock on which the dam is built. A strong
and stable foundation is essential to ensure the
dam's structural integrity.

 Seepage: Seepage is the leakage or flow of water

through or under the dam. Proper design and
construction are necessary to control seepage and
prevent potential dam failure.

 Dam Safety: Dam safety involves monitoring,

maintenance, and risk assessment to ensure the
dam's stability and reliability over time. Regular
inspections and necessary repairs are conducted
to minimize potential hazards.
 Resettlement: Resettlement refers to the process
of relocating communities or people affected by the
construction of the dam and the subsequent
creation of the reservoir.

 Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA): EIA is

a study conducted to assess the potential
environmental impacts of building a dam. It helps
identify and mitigate negative effects on
ecosystems, wildlife, and local communities.

 Fish Ladder: A fish ladder is a structure built to

help fish bypass the dam, enabling them to migrate
upstream to spawn and maintain natural fish
populations.
 Selection of site for dam
The selection of a suitable site for a dam is a crucial step in
the planning and construction process. Several factors must
be considered to ensure the dam's safety, stability, and
effectiveness. Here are some key considerations for selecting
a site for a dam:
 Geological and Geotechnical Conditions: The geological
and geotechnical characteristics of the site play a vital role
in determining the dam's stability. The foundation should
consist of strong and stable rock or soil capable of
supporting the dam's weight and withstanding the water
pressure from the reservoir. Detailed geotechnical
investigations are essential to assess the site's suitability.
 Hydrology and Hydraulics: An assessment of the river's
hydrological and hydraulic characteristics is crucial. Factors
such as water flow rates, seasonal variations, sediment
transport, and flood potential need to be analyzed to ensure
the dam can handle the water volumes and flow without
excessive erosion or sedimentation.
 Topography: The topography of the site
influences the dam's design and construction.
A suitable location would have narrow, steep-
sided valleys, where the dam can efficiently
impound water with minimal construction
material. The shape and depth of the reservoir
are also influenced by the surrounding terrain.

 Seismic Considerations: If the site is in a

seismically active region, it is essential to
assess the potential seismic hazards. The dam
must be designed to withstand seismic forces,
ensuring it remains stable during earthquakes.

 Downstream Consequences: The potential

consequences of dam failure must be
evaluated. Downstream communities,
infrastructure, and ecosystems need to be
considered to minimize the risk to human life
and the environment.
 Environmental Impact: The
environmental impact of building a dam
can be significant. The site selection
process should consider potential effects
on wildlife habitats, ecosystems, and
downstream water quality. Measures to
mitigate negative impacts should be
integrated into the project.

 Social Considerations: The construction Environmental impact assessment of dam-break floods

of a dam can lead to the relocation of
communities and affect local livelihoods.
The social and cultural aspects of the area
need to be taken into account, and
consultation with affected communities is
essential.

The social impacts of dams:

 Economic Feasibility: The economic
feasibility of the dam project should be
evaluated, considering factors such as the
cost of construction, potential benefits (e.g.,
irrigation, power generation, flood control),
and the project's long-term sustainability.

 Reservoir Capacity: The site must have

sufficient space to create a reservoir that
can store the required amount of water for
the intended purposes, such as irrigation,
municipal water supply, or power
generation.

 Environmental Permits and Regulations:

The site selection should align with local
and national environmental regulations and
obtain the necessary permits for
construction and operation.
 Factors governing selection of type of dam
The selection of the type of dam for a particular project depends
on various factors, including the geological, hydrological, and
topographical conditions of the site, as well as the intended
purpose of the dam and environmental considerations.
Here are the key factors that govern the selection of the type of
dam:
 Geology and Foundation Conditions: The geological
characteristics of the site, such as the type and strength of the
bedrock or soil, influence the type of dam that can be
constructed. For example, sites with strong and stable rock
foundations are well-suited for concrete gravity dams, while
those with softer or less stable foundations may require
embankment dams.
 Water Flow and Hydrological Conditions: The hydrological
characteristics of the river or stream, such as flow rates,
seasonal variations, and sediment transport, influence the
design of the dam. For instance, high flow rates may require a
dam with large spillway capacity to handle floods effectively.
 Topography: The topography of the site affects the
dam's design and construction. Narrow, steep-
sided valleys may favor concrete arch dams, while
broad, gently sloping valleys may be suitable for Arch dams
earthfill embankment dams.

 Dam Purpose: The intended purpose of the dam

plays a significant role in selecting the dam type.
Different dam types are more suitable for specific
functions, such as:
 Concrete gravity dams are often used for Earthfill embankment
water storage and hydroelectric power
generation.
 Earthfill embankment dams are commonly
used for water storage and flood control.
 Concrete arch dams are preferred for narrow,
deep canyons and are commonly used for
water storage and hydropower generation. Concrete
 Buttress dams are suitable for sites with gravity dams
abundant construction materials and are often
used for water storage and flood control.
 Reservoir Capacity: The required reservoir capacity to
meet the project's objectives may influence the type of dam
chosen. Some dam types are more efficient in creating
larger reservoirs than others.
 Environmental Impact: The environmental impact of a dam
is an important consideration. Certain dam types may have
a more significant impact on the environment, such as the
displacement of wildlife habitats or the alteration of river
ecosystems. Minimizing environmental impact may guide
the selection process.
 Seismic Considerations: If the site is in a seismically
active region, the dam type must be able to withstand
potential seismic forces. Concrete gravity dams and arch
dams are generally more suitable for seismic areas due to
their robust construction.
 Construction Materials Availability: The
availability of suitable construction materials,
such as rock and soil, at the site or nearby,
can influence the choice of dam type. Earthfill
dams are often selected when ample
construction materials are readily accessible.

 Cost and Budget: The construction cost and

budget constraints can also impact the
selection of the dam type. Some dam types
may be more cost-effective for a given project
than others.

 Aesthetics and Landscape: In some cases,

the aesthetic considerations of the dam and
its integration into the landscape may
influence the choice of dam type, especially in
areas with high tourist or recreational value.
 Final Investigations for a dam site
• Engineering Surveys: Precise site survey and preparation of topographic maps
 to determine the storage capacity and water spread area of the reservoir at various elevations
 to determine the extent of submerged land, villages, etc. and arrangements for their rehabilitation; and
 Determination of the extent of relocation of railroads and public highways on account of submergence
• Geological Investigations: Detailed surface, sub-surface and geologic explorations
with the help of borings, test pits, etc.
 Check suitability of foundation for the dam,
 Check water-tightness of the reservoir basin,
 Location of quarry sites for obtaining construction material and estimation of available quantities,
 For Planning the foundation treatment
• Hydrological Investigations:
 Study of runoff pattern of the river at the proposed dam site to determine storage capacity vis-à-vis a given
demand
 Determination of hydrograph of the worst flood for designing spillway and its capacity
• Selection of type of dam
• Estimation of accurate cost, etc.
 Classification of dams
 Based on Construction Materials:
a). Concrete Dams: These dams are constructed using concrete, which is
poured into formwork to create a solid structure. Concrete dams can be
further categorized into:
 Concrete Gravity Dams: These dams rely on their weight to resist
the water pressure. They are massive and require a strong
foundation.
 Concrete Arch Dams: The arch shape of these dams transfers
water pressure to the abutments on the sides of the valley, allowing
them to be thinner than gravity dams for the same height.
b). Embankment Dams: These dams are built using compacted soil, rock,
or a combination of both. Embankment dams can be classified into:
 Earthfill Dams: Constructed with compacted earth and other
materials, they are the most common type of embankment dams.
 Rockfill Dams: Built primarily using rock or a combination of rock
and soil.
 Earth-Rockfill Dams: A combination of earthfill and rockfill to
optimize construction materials.
Rockfill Dams Rockfill dam with a central core
Based on Purpose:
a. Storage Dams: These dams are designed to store water in a reservoir for various purposes, such
as irrigation, water supply, and hydropower generation.

b. Detention or Flood Control Dams: Built to control or regulate floodwaters and reduce
downstream flooding during heavy rainfall.

c. Diversion Dams: Constructed to divert water from a river or stream for irrigation or other purposes
without creating a permanent storage reservoir.
Based on Hydraulic Behavior:
a. Overflow (Spillway) Dams: Dams designed with a spillway to safely release excess water when
the reservoir reaches its full capacity.

b. Non-Overflow (Non-Spillway) Dams: Dams that do not have a spillway and rely on natural flow or
controlled outlets for water release.
Based on Cross-Sectional Shape:
a. Straight Dams: Dams with a straight alignment along the river or stream.
b. Curved Dams: Dams with a curved alignment, such as arc or crescent-shaped dams.
Based on Height:
a. Low Dams: Dams with a relatively low height, typically up to 15 meters (50 feet).
b. Medium Dams: Dams with a height between 15 meters (50 feet) and 100 meters (330 feet).
c. High Dams: Dams with a height exceeding 100 meters (330 feet).
Based on Location:
a. Headworks or Barrage: Dams constructed at the head of a river or canal to regulate flow and control water
diversion.

b. Tailings Dams: Dams constructed to contain mining waste materials, known as tailings.
 Catchment, Command and Submergence Area
• Catchment Area: A catchment is an area where
water is collected by the natural landscape.
• Submergence area: When a dam is constructed,
water starts accumulating on the upstream side
of the dam and forms an artificial reservoir. This
artificial reservoir occupies certain area on the
upstream side of the dam called as submergence
Or water spread area.
• Command Area: It is that area which gets benefitted
By construction of dam (such as Irrigation water,
Drinking water supply, hydropower, etc.)
Catchment Delineation
Storage Zones in a Reservoir
 Water Surface or Pool Levels in a Reservoir
• Full Reservoir Level (FRL) OR Normal Pool Level (NPL): It is the maximum
elevation to which the water surface will rise in the reservoir during ordinary
operating conditions. In fact, this is the highest reservoir level that can be
maintained without spillway discharge or without passing water downstream
through sluice ways. In case of an un-gated spillway, the FRL (NPL) is determined
by the elevation of the spillway crest.
• Minimum Drawdown Level (MDDL): It is the level below which the reservoir will not
be drawn down so as to maintain a minimum head required in power projects.
• Dead Storage Level (DSL) OR Minimum Pool Level (MPL): It is the lowest
elevation to which the water is drawn from the reservoir under normal operating
conditions. Below this level, there are no outlets to drain the water in the reservoir
by gravity.
• Maximum Water Level (MWL) OR Maximum Pool Level: It is the maximum
elevation to which the water surface will rise in the reservoir during the design flood
(or worst flood). It depends upon the specified initial reservoir level and the spillway
gate operation rule. This level is also called sometimes as the Highest Reservoir
Level or the Highest Flood Level.
 Storage Zones in a Reservoir
• Live / Useful storage: The volume of water stored between the FRL (NPL) and the DSL (Min Pool Level) of a
reservoir is called live/useful storage. In a multi-purpose reservoir, the useful storage may be subdivided into
Conservation storage and Flood Control Storage with respect to the operational plan of the reservoir.
• Dead storage: It is the total storage below the DSL (Min Pool Level) of a reservoir. It can not be used for any
purpose under normal operating conditions.
• Outlet Surcharge or Flood storage: It is the volume of water stored between the FRL (NPL) and the MWL (Max Pool
Level) of a reservoir. This is required as a reserve between FRL and the MWL to contain the peaks of floods that
might occur when there is insufficient storage capacity below FRL. It is an uncontrolled storage as it exists only while
a flood is occurring and can not be retained for later use.
• Bank Storage: It is the volume of water that is temporarily stored in the permeable banks of a reservoir when the
reservoir fills and drains out as the water level in the reservoir is lowered.
• Buffer Storage: This is the space located just above the Dead Storage Level up to Minimum Drawdown Level. As the
name implies, this zone is a buffer between the active and dead storage zones and releases from this zone are
made in dry situations to cater for essential requirements only. Dead Storage and Buffer Storage together is called
Interactive Storage.
• Within-the-Year Storage: This term is used to denote the storage of a reservoir meant for meeting the demands of a
specific hydrologic year used for planning the project.
• Carry-Over Storage: When the entire water stored in a reservoir is not used up in a year, the unused water is stored
as carry-over storage for use in subsequent years.
• Silt / Sedimentation zone: The space occupied by the sediment in the reservoir.
 Objectives of dam safety and instrumentation
The primary objective of dam safety is to ensure the safe and stable operation of dams, minimizing the
risk of failure and the potential consequences of such failure. Dam safety involves a range of activities
and measures aimed at achieving the following objectives:

 Public Safety: The foremost objective of dam safety is to protect human life and property
downstream from potential dam failures. Ensuring the structural integrity and stability of the dam is
essential to prevent catastrophic flooding and loss of life.

 Structural Integrity: Dam safety aims to maintain the structural integrity of the dam throughout its
lifespan. Regular inspections, monitoring, and maintenance help identify and address any structural
issues that could compromise the dam's stability.

 Preventing Dam Failures: The goal is to prevent dam failures or major incidents that could lead to
uncontrolled release of water and cause downstream flooding.

 Early Warning and Emergency Preparedness: Dam safety measures include the establishment
of early warning systems and emergency preparedness plans to respond promptly in case of any
potential threats or adverse conditions.
 Environmental Protection: Dam safety considers the impact of dam operations on the environment, such as
downstream water quality, fish migration, and wildlife habitats. Measures are taken to minimize negative
environmental effects.

 Sustainable Operations: The sustainability of dam operations is essential to ensure long-term benefits and
minimize adverse impacts on the environment and society.

 Compliance with Regulations: Dam safety aims to comply with relevant dam safety regulations and
guidelines set by local, national, and international authorities.
Objectives of Dam Instrumentation:
Dam instrumentation involves the use of various monitoring devices and instruments to continuously
or periodically measure and assess the behavior and performance of dams. The objectives of dam
instrumentation include:

 Structural Health Monitoring: Dam instrumentation is used to monitor the structural health of the
dam, including its foundation, abutments, and concrete/embankment materials. This helps identify
any deformations, settlements, or potential signs of distress.

 Seepage and Leakage Monitoring: Instruments measure seepage and leakage through the dam
and its foundation to ensure that the flow is within acceptable limits and does not compromise dam
stability.

 Water Level Monitoring: Monitoring the water level in the reservoir allows for effective dam
operation and flood control. It helps prevent overtopping and ensures that the reservoir does not
reach capacity during heavy rainfall.

 Reservoir Sedimentation Monitoring: Sedimentation monitoring instruments measure the buildup

of sediments in the reservoir. This information is vital for estimating the dam's useful life and
planning for sediment management.
 Pore Pressure Monitoring: Instruments measure pore pressure within the dam and foundation to
assess the potential for internal erosion and seepage.

 Temperature Monitoring: Monitoring the temperature of the dam helps detect potential issues
related to material expansion or contraction.

 Instrumentation for Early Warning Systems: Certain instrumentation systems are integrated into
early warning systems, alerting dam operators and downstream communities of potential hazards
or abnormal dam behavior.
 Types of different instruments for dam safety
 Piezometers : Piezometers are essential instruments used to measure pore water pressure within the dam
and its foundation. These instruments are typically installed in boreholes or wells, penetrating the dam body
and foundation. By measuring the water pressure, engineers can assess the potential for seepage and the
risk of internal erosion. Pore water pressure data helps in understanding the stability of the dam and can be
used to make decisions regarding reservoir levels and seepage control measures.
 Inclinometers: Inclinometers are deployed to measure the inclination or tilt of the dam or its foundation.
These instruments help detect horizontal and vertical deformations or movements in the dam structure. If
significant tilting is observed, it could indicate potential instability or stress on the dam. Inclinometer data is
crucial for early detection of movement and allows for timely intervention to mitigate any hazards.

Inclinometers

Piezometers
 Settlement Gauges: Settlement gauges are used to measure vertical movements or settlements of the dam
or its foundation. They provide information about the long-term stability of the structure and any changes that
may occur due to consolidation or other factors. Settlement gauges are often installed at multiple locations
across the dam to monitor differential settlement.
 Crack Monitors: Crack monitors are used to measure the width and movement of cracks that may develop in
the dam or its concrete structure. These instruments help assess the structural integrity of the dam and
identify potential areas of concern. Monitoring crack width over time allows engineers to understand how the
cracks are behaving and make decisions about repair and maintenance activities.
 Strain Gauges: Strain gauges are used to measure deformation and stress in various dam components,
such as concrete, rock, or steel. They are particularly valuable in concrete dams, where they can be
embedded to monitor stress in the concrete and identify potential structural issues. Strain gauge data helps
engineers assess the health of the dam and its response to various loads and forces.

 Load Cells: Load cells are employed to measure the forces acting on specific parts of the dam or its
foundation. These instruments provide valuable data on the distribution of loads and help in evaluating
structural stability. Load cells are particularly useful in large dams or those subjected to varying loads, such as
reservoir filling and drawdown.

Strain Gauges
Load cells installation for dam rehabilitation program
  Vibrating Wire Sensors : Vibrating wire sensors are commonly used to monitor concrete stress, strain, and
temperature. In concrete dams, they can be embedded in the concrete during construction to provide
continuous monitoring of concrete behavior. These sensors are reliable and have minimal long-term drift,
making them suitable for long-term monitoring applications.
 Extensometers: Extensometers are used to measure small changes in dam or foundation dimensions, such
as deformation or settlement. These instruments can be installed on the surface of the dam or embedded in
boreholes to monitor displacements accurately. Extensometers provide early warnings of potential dam-
related issues and are essential for understanding dam behavior over time.

Extensometers
Vibrating Wire Sensors
 Water Level Gauges: Water level gauges, also known as stage gauges, are simple instruments used to
measure the water level in the reservoir. They play a crucial role in dam operation, as they provide real-time
data to dam operators, helping them manage the reservoir's water level and regulate downstream flow.
 Seepage Monitoring Instruments: Various instruments, such as seepage meters, weirs, and collection
wells, are used to monitor seepage flow through the dam and its foundation. Seepage monitoring is critical to
assess the effectiveness of seepage control measures and detect any undesirable flows that could lead to
erosion or instability.

Water Level Gauges Seepage Monitoring Instruments

 Tiltmeters: Tiltmeters are instruments used to measure the rotation or tilting of the dam or its
foundation. They are installed at specific locations to detect slope instability or deformations that
could impact the dam's stability. Tiltmeters are valuable for monitoring changes in the dam's
alignment over time.
 Global Positioning System (GPS): GPS technology is employed to monitor dam movements and
deformations in three dimensions. GPS instruments are installed at various locations around the
dam, and they provide precise data on dam displacements. GPS measurements are essential for
monitoring the long-term behavior of the dam and identifying any unusual movements.

 Remote Sensing: Satellite-based remote sensing techniques, such as Synthetic Aperture Radar
(SAR) and Interferometric SAR (InSAR), can be used to monitor ground movements over large
areas, providing valuable information on potential dam-related issues. Remote sensing data can
complement on-site instrumentation and help detect regional ground movements that could impact
dam safety.

 Instrumentation for Early Warning Systems: In addition to the individual instruments mentioned
above, early warning systems integrate data from multiple sensors to detect abnormal dam
behavior promptly. These systems trigger alarms or alerts when certain parameters exceed safety
thresholds, providing advance notice of potential hazards. Early warning systems are critical for
rapid response and emergency preparedness.
THANK YOU
Dr. Vijendra Kumar