AS Practical Guidance - Unit 1

1. Measurement of the density of solids

2. Determination of unknown masses using principle of moments
3. Measurement of g by freefall
4. Newton’s 2nd Law
5. Measurement of Young’s Modulus for a metal wire
6. Measurement of Young’s Modulus for rubber.
1 – Density of Solids
𝑀𝑎𝑠𝑠
𝐷𝑒𝑛𝑠𝑖𝑡𝑦 =
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒
Method
Measure the mass of the object using a balance.
Measure the volume by measuring the dimensions of the object using either a ruler (±1 mm)
or a micrometer((± 0.01mm) or Vernier caliper (± 0.1mm). Then calculate using the
appropriate equation.

Error analysis
For a cuboid:
𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ × 𝑤𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ × ℎ𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
So to find the uncertainty in the volume, you must add the percentage uncertainties
together.
For a sphere:

𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑒 = 4⁄3 𝜋𝑟 3

So to find the uncertainty, multiply the percentage uncertainty in radius by 3.

Reducing errors
The main way to reduce errors would be to make the measurements larger. For example,
you could measure the thickness of a stack of 100 sheets of paper instead of a single sheet.
This reduces the percentage uncertainty.
2 – Finding masses using moments

To find the weight of the ruler, place a known weight on the right of the pivot and move it
until the ruler balances.
The equation will then be:
0.20 × 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑑𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑜𝑚 𝑝𝑖𝑣𝑜𝑡 × 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Once the ruler weight is known, an unknown mass can be used to balance it. The equation
is then:
0.20 × 𝑟𝑢𝑙𝑒𝑟 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡 = 𝑑 × 𝑢𝑛𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑤𝑒𝑖𝑔ℎ𝑡
Once the unknown weight is calculated:
𝑊 = 𝑚𝑔
This allows you to calculate the mass.

Error analysis
In this case the percentage uncertainties in ruler weight and distances should be added
together.
3 – Measuring g by freefall

Method
1. Set height h to 2m and press the switch. Record the time taken to fall.
2. Reduce height by 0.2m and repeat.
3. Continue reducing height until 0.4m.

Processing Data
1 2
𝑠 = 𝑢𝑡 + 𝑎𝑡
2
In this case, u is zero so:
1 2
ℎ= 𝑔𝑡
2
To get a straight line:
𝑦 = 𝑚𝑥
So a graph of h against t2 will be a straight line, with gradient = 0.5g.

Error Analysis
This experiment uses a graph, so you should include error bars. The uncertainty in gradient
is then ±half the range. The uncertainty in g will be ± range since you are multiplying by
two.
4 – Newton’s Second Law

Background
The air track is used to reduce friction as much as possible.
The total mass of the system is (M+m). The resultant force is mg. So by Newton’s second
law:
𝑚𝑔 = (𝑀 + 𝑚)𝑎
And:
𝑚𝑔
𝑎=
(𝑀 + 𝑚)
𝟏
So a graph of a against mg should be a straight line with a gradient of (𝑴+𝒎)

Method
1. Put slotted masses on the end of the pulley and record the acceleration.
2. Move a mass from the end of the pulley to the rider and record acceleration.
3. Repeat the process until only one slotted mass is left on the end.

Error Analysis
Since the measurements are taken by light gate, the uncertainties are probably very small.
If possible, error bars and maximum/minimum lines should be used.
5 – Young’s Modulus for a wire

Method
Use a micrometer to measure the diameter of the wire in at least 3 places, then average.
Use this to find the cross sectional area of the wire.
Use a ruler to find the starting length of the wire.
Add known weight to the variable load and record the extension of the test wire. In our
case we use a screw gauge instead of a Vernier scale. A suitable range would be 0 – 50 N.
We are assuming the area has negligible change as the wire stretches.

Processing data
Plot a graph of load force against extension.
𝐹𝑙
Young’s Modulus =
𝐴𝑥
𝐹
The gradient of the graph will be so:
𝑥

𝑙
𝑌𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑔′ 𝑠 𝑚𝑜𝑑𝑢𝑙𝑢𝑠 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 ×
𝐴
Error Analysis
The uncertainty in gradient is ±half the range.
Uncertainty in length and area can be found from the measurements.
The uncertainty in Young’s Modulus is found by adding the percentage uncertainties
together.
6 – Young’s Modulus of Rubber
Method
Hang a piece of rubber band from a clamp with a small mass attached (e.g. 50g).
Use a G-clamp to fix the stand to the table.
Attach a fiducial marker (e.g. a pin) to the mass hanger.
Measure the length and width using a ruler, and the thickness with a micrometer.
Add weight to the end and record the extension each time.
Unload the masses one at a time to record a second set of results.

Processing data and error analysis

The processing and error analysis are the same as for the metal wire.
You should only use the linear section of the graph.
AS Practical Guidance - Unit 2

1. IV Characteristics
2. Determination of resistivity
3. Variation of resistance with temperature
4. Internal resistance of a cell
5. Intensity variation for polarisation
6. Determination of wavelength using Young’s Double Slit
7. Determination of wavelength using diffraction grating
8. Speed of sound using stationary waves
9. Measurement of refractive index
10.Determination of h using LEDs
1 – IV Characteristics of Lamp and Metal Wire

Method
1. Set up the circuit as shown and set the variable supply to 0.5V.
2. Record the potential difference and current.
3. Switch off the circuit to reduce effects of heating.
4. Increase the supply by 0.5V and repeat the measurements.
5. Repeat the procedure until you reach 5V (May vary depending on components, e.g. a
12V lamp needs to be tested up to 12V).

Processing Results
Plot a graph of p.d. against current. You should find a straight line through the origin for the
metal wire and a curve for the lamp due to increasing resistance.

Error analysis
The uncertainties are likely to be very small since the measurements are made by the
meters.
2 – Determination of resistivity

Method
1. Use a micrometer to measure the diameter of the wire in at least three places and
find an average.
2. Attach the clips to give a length of 10cm.
3. Switch on the circuit and record the current and potential difference.
4. Switch off and increase the length by 10cm, then switch on and record the meter
readings.
5. Repeat the process until you reach 100cm.
6. Repeat the whole experiment and find averages.
7. Calculate the resistance for each length.
Data Processing
Plot a graph of resistance (y-axis) against length (x-axis).
Resistivity is calculated by:
𝜌𝑙
𝑅=
𝐴
𝜌
So the graph will be a straight line through the origin with a gradient of 𝐴.

Calculate the area using the diameter measured at the beginning.

𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑡𝑦 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
Error processing
The graph should have error bars in both axes. Find the range of gradients.
𝐴 = 𝜋𝑟 2 so the uncertainty in area is % error in radius x 2.
The uncertainty in resistivity is % in gradient + % in area.
3 – Variation of resistance with temperature

Method
1. Use a Bunsen burner to heat the water bath.
2. Set the temperature to 20°C and record the resistance of the coil.
3. Increase the temperature by 10°C and repeat.
4. Repeat the procedure until 100°C.
5. Place the coil in a beaker of ice and record the resistance at 0°C.

Processing results
Plot a graph of resistance (y-axis) against length (x-axis). This should give a straight line
through the origin.

Error processing
Uncertainties are likely to be very small in this experiment.
4 – Internal Resistance of a Cell

Method
1. Put a 1Ω resistor in the circuit and record the potential difference and current.
2. Replace the resistor with a larger value and repeat.
3. Continue increasing the resistance to a maximum of 10Ω.
4. Plot a graph of potential against current.

Processing results
The equation for the circuit is:
𝑉 = 𝜀 − 𝐼𝑟
So a graph of V against I should have a gradient equal to -r and a y-intercept of 𝜺.

Error analysis
Uncertainties are likely to be very small in this experiment due to the meters being used. If
the uncertainties are large enough you can plot error bars.
5 – Intensity variation for polarisation
Background
Light from a lamp will be unpolarised. When passed through a polaroid filter it will be
polarised (only oscillating in one plane).
If a second polaroid filter is placed in front of the polarised light and rotated you will
observe no light being transmitted when the plane of the polaroid is at 90° to the light
plane. As you rotated the polaroid the transmitted intensity increases, with a maximum
when the planes are lined up.
A laser produces polarised light, so the same thing will be observed with a single filter.
Microwaves are also polarised so a metal grill can be used to produce the same effect.

Method
Look at the lamp through both polaroid sheets and rotate one of them. Observe the change
in intensity.

Data Processing
No data is required for this experiment, so no processing is needed.
6 – Determination of wavelength by Young’s double slit

Method
1. Note the slit spacing d.
2. Set distance D to 2m.
3. Measure the fringe spacing y by measuring the distance between several bright
fringes (e.g. 10), then divide by the number of spaces. This reduces uncertainty.
4. Reduce D by 0.2m and repeat the measurements.
5. Repeat the process until you reach 0.2m.

Data Processing
Fringe spacing is given by:
𝜆𝐷
𝑦=
𝑑
So a graph of y (y-axis) against D (x-axis) will be a straight line through the origin, with a
𝝀
gradient of 𝒅. So:

𝜆 = 𝑔𝑟𝑎𝑑𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡 × 𝑑

Error processing
In this experiment you should draw error bars on the graph. The uncertainty in gradient is
then ±half the range.
Since this is multiplied by d, the % uncertainty in wavelength is found by adding the % in
gradient and d. You should then convert to absolute uncertainty.
7 – Determination of wavelength by diffraction grating

Method
1. Note the slit spacing on the diffraction grating. Set distance D to 1m.
2. Measure x, the distance between bright fringes.
3. Replace the diffraction grating with another value and repeat the measurements.

Data Processing
𝑥
1. Calculate angle θ using tan 𝜃 = 𝐷

2. The diffraction grating equation is:

𝑛𝜆 = 𝑑 sin 𝜃
Which becomes:
1 sin 𝜃
=
𝑑 𝜆
𝟏
Plot a graph of 𝒅 (y-axis) against 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝜽 (x-axis). This should be a straight line through the
𝟏
origin with a gradient of 𝝀.

Error Analysis
Draw error bars and use the range of gradients. The % uncertainty in wavelength is the
same as the % in gradient.
8 – Speed of sound using stationary waves

Method
1. Start with the resonance tube as deep in the water as possible. Hold the tuning fork
above the resonance tube and slowly raise the tube up until the sound is loudest
(resonance).
2. Measure the length of the tube above the waterline.
3. Repeat for a range of tuning forks. Record the frequency of each tuning fork.
4. Repeat and average.
Data Processing
In a tube open at one end, resonance first occurs when length + end correction is a quarter
of the wavelength.
𝜆
𝑙+𝑒 =
4
Since 𝑐 = 𝑓𝜆:
𝑐
𝑙= −𝑒
4𝑓
𝟏 𝒄
Plot a graph of 𝒍 against 𝒇. This will be a straight line with a gradient of 𝟒.

Error Processing
Draw error bars for 𝑙. Error in f will be negligible. Use the maximum and minimum
gradients to calculate the uncertainty in c.
9 – Measurement of refractive index

Method
1. Draw around the glass block and draw the normal line.
2. Use a protractor to set the angle of incidence to 10°. Mark the point where the
beam leaves the ray box and the point it leaves the glass block.
3. Remove the block and draw the line inside the block.
4. Measure the angle of refraction using a protractor.
5. Repeat every 10° to at least 60°.
6. Repeat the whole experiment and average the results.

Results Processing
Plot a graph of 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒊 (y-axis) against 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒓 (x-axis). The gradient is the refractive index of
the block.

Error Analysis
Plot error bars in both axes. Draw the maximum and minimum lines and find the range of
gradients.
10 – Determination of h using LEDS

Method
1. Record the wavelength emitted by the LED.
2. Adjust the power supply voltage until the LED just begins to glow. This is the striking
voltage, 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 . It may be helpful to place a black paper tube around the LED to make
the light easier to see.
3. Repeat the procedure with a range of LEDs.

Data Processing
At the striking voltage we can assume each electron causes emission of one photon. So:
ℎ𝑐
𝐸 = 𝑒𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 = ℎ𝑓 =
𝜆
Rearranging:
ℎ𝑐
𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 =
𝑒𝜆
𝟏 𝒉𝒄
So a graph of 𝑽𝒎𝒊𝒏 (y-axis) against 𝝀 (x-axis)will have a gradient of .
𝒆

Error Analysis
Plot error bars for 𝑉𝑚𝑖𝑛 . The other errors will be negligible. The range of gradients can be
used to find the uncertainty in c.