CHAPTER TWO BASICS OF AC PROGRAM jectives ‘sub-chapter 1.3 explained the various featur se Chapter isto discuss the following features Janguage): Holders of data (v s and constants), and starements, and expressions. The specific objectives are to; i Describe the basi res of a program. The (using C various structure of a C program; e Describe how to input and output in C: Explain the role of variables, constants and to use them in C; Describe how to form expressions and highlight the work of different operators based on the C language; Introduce the programming errors that the learner expects to encounter when developing his programs; and Explain the good programming techniques recommended in programming. data types and how Learning Outcomes ‘At the end of this Chapter, the learner should be able to: Describe the basic structure of a C program; Describe how to accomplish the following in C: Inputting, ‘outputting, usage of variables, constants, data types, and forming of expressions; and Develop simple C programs. About C ‘The C Program Structure. ‘ Inputting and Outputting. Variables, Constants, and Data types. Operators. Documentation lines. Programming Errors. Good Programming Techniques. Solved Problems. Exetcises. saatts What is C? - ST high level, machine 107) ee Wn struc is was developed in tec! 'S Ritoh ¥ language. The we js an extension of an cae oes vtarhagem lan gaagg — was also developed at Bell Laboratorie known as B, ve whose rich set of built-in functions and Peratoy, C isa robust — complex programs, The C compiler Combines can be used 10 bi an assembly language (low level Programming) way ee for both development of system s¢ oh tee San This book however does not conee foams but rather high level programming. nitrate on be 2.1.2: Why use C? Cis usually a preferred langua; ge because; * — Cprograms are efficient and fast, * C programs are highly portable can run on different hy, platforms and operating systems, 1s a structured language - n $$$, t allows the Programmer to so problems in form of functio, ' (blocks of code), This makes Program easy to Write, debug, (est and modify, | 3 * Chas flexible syntax that allows the programmer to Write code in, » The programmer can also write code that is quite ’ ious Programmer, 6 oo {Or capabilities for ‘extending itself’, You ¢ ously add your Own functions to the Cs fjHinclude yoid main() { } (a), The line #include This line is a compiler directive line. A compiler directive is an instruction to the compiler to do a certain thing when it is compiling your program. For example the line #include tells the compiler to link the file (or header file) named stdio.h to the program. This file has definitions of input and output operations. It contains explanations on how to do inputting and outputting through the functions seamf() and Functions, as was explained in Chapter one, are sections of code for ‘compiler can not understand scanf() and printf() statements whenever statements start of the main (or the main the body ae program. eehalt written in the following form, af the miataO) function and rety : te Tpeexplained in Chapter four. hy tells the compute, ined in Chapte with the message toprint \ne te the best language 100 the wer programe! "4 me omurn(O)) In this oxample, we have three statements to output the three lines in the ynoanage (c). Why use \n in print{( statements? Tho \w before the start of each line of message in used to format the output so that the computer takes the cursor to the start of the next line ‘on the sereen before starting outputting what follows: if we omit \w at the beginning of each statement for example, the three sentences: will be output on one line (f), How does the computer execute the statements? When the progran 1s executed, the computer goes straight to the main() function and obeys the instructions in sequence i.e. starting from the first instruction Lo the last (sequential execution) Control structures (in Chapter three) may however be used to modify this sequential execution to allow for repetition (repeated execution of instructions as controlled by a condition) and d mn making (selecting an alternative, thus executing some instructions and omitting others). (g). Some C language rules to note up to this level e Every statement (or instruction) must end with a semt colon, * We can combine many statements on the same line as long as each ends with a semi colon. + Byery keyword (¢ include, return, vgid, main, ete) must not be ~ misspelled rand must consist of sina letters. These are words that have a special meaning in the language and are also known as Set ‘You will continue to learn more keywords as You proceed, ne are however listed in part (h) below. © Other rules of C language must be obeyed e.g. “ must have # corresponding ”, { must have a corresponding }, ete not care where we start typing « ine, We can fF 9 code (the Word Processing indenting) #6"inside void ve readability of code, also to return(0); — can also © t the end of each (h). Some keywords in c auto, break, case, char, const, continue, det extem, float, for, goto, if, int, long, register, static, struct, switch, typedef, union, un: 2.2.2: How to Execute a C Progra’ The compiler used The compiler used to test all programs and codi is Microsoft Visual C++ 6.0 (for Windows oj the explanation of how to execute a C program i compiler is used for both C and C++ programs. However, explanation based on U; x (specifically You can also use another com C compiler. piler to test the pro; Point to Note * ~~ You should however nots get some errors if. Visual C++ 6.0 fe that there is no guai You're using these other cot ompiler was used to test all (a). The basic steps Where to store your It’s important to first note oerams secondary storage device (¢ ane pr decide the directory where,good © create your directory where you will st s3 a : Z store ‘ s are well organized. You do so nea. Programs so ¢ system you are using e.g So 8. ows your chat } ~ of the operating , of Windows or MkDir command (if y you are using com pxploret program Linus = execution steps The pasic SEEPS of executing a C program are; @ Create the source program using the editor of the compiler you're using. Also save your program in the appropriate directory. (i Compile the program using the compiler you are using. This checks and reports any errors in the program. If there are no errors, the abject program is produced. (iid- Execute (oF run) the object program. This makes the computer to obey the instructions In the program. These steps are common to all operating systems, but the commands for mm operating systems to another. doing so vary fro" he execution steps using Microsoft Visual C++ 6.0 rosoft Visual C++ 6.0 interface ' (b). T @. Open the Mic (ii). From the File Menu, select New sub menu. ed (Ww indow titled ndow that is displa he listing shown. Also le, int f the program’s file (e.g. ei). Select Files tab in the wi New), and then select C++ Source Fil in the right hand side write the name © Progl.cpp) in the text box just below File name:. Also select the ditectory you want to store the file in the text box just below Location:. The interface should now appear as the one below.snouos au Joy adenduyy 189q O49 St Qui,, ound { J Qzeuny pion { 4 3 (1aung pio* <(, oBenBuel 2 Suisn USM Sem IIA, )yuud / <(_curesBoid puooas Aut st siypm,,.yraud ctyorpis> apniuie mojaq unoys se Yoo] {1!m wiEsBosd aU “SHORES dot) ou JO saueU ay) Se goUNy puy ‘Zouny “Joung sn [fim aan SUP Uy ‘eBessow Jo aut] 210 Buryndyno soy yoea ‘suonouny 29403 oa wants 9q Ajaaneuoye Wed |'7'7 HONDAS Jo 7 ajdumexg Ut westoxd VTT woysas Jo 7 adurexy Bunuimay :ajdwexd 0) : onus -gaoge paresisnii! 9° Qureur oy) 10f au0 ay) 07 ARIUS SI UORSUNy YoRD jo Aan(d), Basie # This prog! following. Other fune The struel main() fam function enclosed start the statement. — (e). What is me In this case, mail tell the computer then return. A () brackets. For exal named funel i.e follows the call. fune3(); Thus, we exes When the program is the function main(). (starting point of the pi calls in main(). It’s mandatory for a prog (f). Functions that ri Some functions however something. When we are the required value(s), The For example, we can hay an integer as a paramete, must pass to it an integer follows.include int main) { int num1, num2, sum; scanf(“%d”, &num 1); scanf(‘%d”, &num2); | | sum=num 1+num2; printf(“%d”, sum); return(0); } Discussion ts the computer to declare three integers The first statement instruc named num1, num2, sum. Declarations will be covered later. + nam wiile . The second statement instructs the computer to inpu! third statement instructs the computer to input num2. |e fi s ieee = a ‘sian assigns a variable sum the sum of num1 and ~ Second last statement outputs the value of the variable sum. s : ‘uppose the user inputs values 4 and 7. The program should output value 11, (c). Type identifiers Type identifiers for both inputting and outputting include the following. Identifier Data type %e %s %d i %u %o YX . character (any single keyboard key represents a character) string (sequence of characters) integer (whole number) decimal, octal or hexadecimal integer In outputting, value displayed as a signed decimal integer floating point number In outputting, value displayed with an exponent floating point number In outputting, value displayed without an exponent floating point number In outputting, value displayed using either %e or %f format depending on the value. Trailing zeros and trailing decimal points are not displayed unsigned decimal integer (a positive integer) octal number (for base 8 numbers) In outputting. leading 0 not displayed hexadecimal number (for base 16 numbers) In outputting, Leading 0x not displayed. The following may be used as a prefix of the above characters (i.e. between % and the corresponding character). h I for short for long For example, %ld refers to a long integer, “hd refers to a short integer, while lf refers to a double (equivalent of a long float). t2.3.4: More on Inputting and ©: When outputting a variable’s value in an o H output stateme can contain not just the type identifier. bia taeh cones too of the type identifier in this string will determine where the “a value will be placed in the output ‘i Example 1 ‘Assuming integer x has value 5, printf(“The value of x is Yd”, x); outputs The value of x is 5, while printf(“%d is the value of x”, x); outputs Sis the value of x, whereas printf(“The value %d is the output”, x): outputs The value 5 is the output (b). Outputting many variables usin: We can also output many variables using the same statement Here, the variables should be written after the string parameter (just as above) and with commas, and their type identifiers written imthe strmg = the sequence that the variables are written in. ite. a string followed by the variables. ¢ the samre Statement 4 Thus, we pass many parameters Example 2 eye the program shown in section 23.3 for computing sum of he # sronars, Suppose that the user inputs 4 and 7 asthe values fox wud ' ively. The output statement used in the program + and num2 printf(%d sum); wil just output the value of sam ie il To improve usability of the program, we ean change the OP statement to be either of the following. (@)._ printf(“The sum is %d”, sum); to output the sum!(ii). printf“%d is the sum”, sum); to OUutpyr li, F is ey im f Yd g I Nm (iii). printf(*%d is the sum of %d ang %a ae » ny, i: n of 4 and 7 re to output 11 is the sum of 4 and 7 % intf(“ of Yd and %d jg 07 a eee ee hey : sy to output The sum of 4 and 7 jg 1] hy, Example 3 . What ee would output 4+7=] 1 Answer Printi(“%d+%d="%d”, numt, num2, sum); (c). Specifying the input and the output width A non-negative number may be written between % and the ¢| that follows in the type identifier, to Specify the width Of the Output i.e. the number of character locations (along the width screen) allocated for the input or the output. In seanf() Statement If the number is in Seanf() statement, it Specifies the maximum number of characters allowed for the input. Thus, you can input less, Ifyou input more characters/digits, the extra characters will be cut off Tn printfy) statement If the number ig in printf) statement, it specifies the minimum width of the piece of, cutput i.e. the number of Character positions allocated for the Output. If the output occupies less character Positions, then the output will be Preceded by blank spaces to fill the extra a °y enough ; Positions, If the character ©ccupies more positions, then it’s ed as it is, ¢ Number may al also iting. 50 be a float e fractiona ting point number in which ! part positions allocated, 4 /hen used in “ of not more wonton Specifies that we can input anii), %5d when i ( = n used in printf) statement specifies that the output integer is allocated five character positions, iii). % 7.28 when used in pri (ii). > = = hen used in printfQ) statement specifies that the output is Seven character positions two of which are fractional part Positions (note that character . is included). Examples 5: Some codes and their outputs @. mtx; scanf{“%3d”, &x); printi(“%ed”, x); ‘The scanf{) statement specifies that only three digits are accepted as the input of x. If you try to input 12345 (five digits), the output is 123, so the extra two digits are not accepted by scanf(). If however you input 123, the output is 123, while if you input 1, the output is 1. (ii). int x= 100; printf(“in%3d”, x); printf("\n%4d”, x): printf(“\n%5d”, x); outputs the following (assuming the screen’s left margin is the left margin of the immediate above code), 100 100 100 In the second statement, the output is allocated three spaces along the sereen’s length, and these are filled by value 100 (with three digits). In the third statement, the output is allocated four character positions, and so ‘outputting value 100 will cause the extra one position to be filed with a preceding single space. Similarly, two spaces start the display of value 100 in the fourth statement, since the output is allocated five character positions. i (iii), int x=100, y=2, 2=3000, n=10000; |outputs VALUES £10000 100 2 : 3000 x=10.0 5 esi %7-3f i) 8 97.38" % Y)5 print outputs - 10.000 5.000 tifier %7-3f SP the value of x (10.0) seven ch fractional part positions. So the outpul these total Six positions. We precede the displa space to fill this difference (notice that there is one space displayeg between : and 10.000). Then to display 5.000 (that has five character positions), We start by outputting a space (note that there is a space specified between the two identifiers in the statement), then displaying two empty spaces and then the value, so as to make this seven character positions. ecifies that we allocate the display of haracter positions. three of them t should be 10.000, but since y with one empty The type iden! (d). Specifying @ flag also include a flag i.e. a charac! t. A flag must be placed imme d include the following. e left justified, and so the empty ) above, will be ‘The type identifier can ter that affects the appearance of the outpu diately after the character %. The flags use Os (that causes data item to b spaces required to fill an output — in part (c an after the data item and not aie fat causes the output number to be : i ; 2 preceded with either - or +). Without the sign, only negative numbe ois ea byasign. ~ y ili). jat causes Zeros to insteac ; (iv). # (ith 0 or x) Seer eae tsattng Olanks). - (causes octal and hexadecimal i (herahaeveh, imal items to be preceded by ° and a sign ie. (ii). + rs are(y), # (with ©, f, or gy Examples 6: @. (ii). ©) Though output inside doubl Use of. (causes a fractional point to be present in all floating point fumbers, even if it is a whole number, Also prevents the (runcation of trailing zeros in g-type conversion), Some codes and their outputs 1 declare integer x with value 123. Printf("\n:%45d", x); // output 123 with five character positions Brintf("\n:%-5d”, x); // Left justify value 123 Printf(\n:%-+d”, x); // 123 is left justified and has a sign Output 123 123 +123 int x123;, float x=355.5, y=455.5, Printt(“%-7.26%0+7 26 %- e", X,Y, 2); Output 355.50 +00455,50,1.22e+002 Discussion The type identifier %-7.2f displays the value of x (355.5) with two even character positions allocated. The the display starts immediately after the previous one, . Escape sequences 16 Quotes inthe printf statement dplys i specified, there are some xo modifies the way the output is presen string exactly the way escape sequences 5 ie— Pag Ww tb ¥ \a v single quote r double quote y question mark ‘The mostly used escape sequence is \n that takes the cursor (© the neyy ~ Tine on the screen, Note that \n can be placed anywhere in the string \y ~ on the other hand leaves a horizontal tab space (the same tab spaces jy ‘word processing used to format text).(0) priwel' My fliest string\tMy second string"); te he ne My second string (vO. prineea"); Rings the computer's bell ‘The other esoape sequences work as shown in Table 2.1 above, The veader should ty them out to test how they work 2.3.5: Input and Output of Characters and Strings (a). About characters What is a character? A character is any single element that can be typed on the keyboard e.g. an alphabet, a digit, or a special symbol (including $, %, !, =, {, |, ete). Declaring a character ad A character is declared using the char data type. For example, to ea declare a character-type variable named t, we write char ts Quoting a character's content * A character's contents is referred to using the “’ quotes. F: le, to assign a char-type variable named t contents ca hdint ee the message\n”) en niqijs”, &message) cal aed seal i -sirlen(message); aa = ed saaTbe message contains %ed charac pein lengths su Variables, Constants and Data Ty pes <= 24d: Variables (Whatisavariable? A variable is a programming concept of a loc 1 the me ring a value that may change from time to ¢ owas that can be stored in a variable must be of program must store the values it is using for con or other advanced storage locations. (b). Declaration of variables Declaring a variable instructs the computer to for storing a value of that type. A variable must t ean be used. Also, a variable can not be declared man: same section of the program (in the main() function or function). allocate a meme ‘The syntax for declaring a variable is Type Name; Example The following statement inst tructs the computer to declare a variable named x, for storing an integer (whole number), int x; Declaring many variables can declare many Variables using the same Statement. In this case, Separate the Variables with commas. For example, the following ny Variables named a, b and ¢ of float type. These can store numbers With decimal points, Moat a,b, ¢; wn‘This is alternative to writing the follow ng three Statement float ay oat by Moat ¢; (©). Initialization of variables You can give a variable some initial vaiue during de known as initializing a variable). For example t ad ¢ to zero during declaration, we write claratio ) initialize float & float a=0, b=0, c= 0; To initialize only b, we write float a, beO, ¢; To initialize a character-type variable, we use Single quotes to enelogg the initial content. For example, char @y’; declares a character variable named t and initializes it with contents ‘y’ To initialize a string, we use the “ quotes. For example char name[30|=“john”; initializes the variable name with the string “john”; char name[30]=""; initializes the variable name with empty string. Points to Note A variable must be declared before being used. > A variable can not be declared more than once (in the same Program or function), A variable can be declared anywhere in the program i.e. it’s not a must to declare it at the beginning of main(), We can declare it at the middle of other statements, 92Yr. ‘ od programming technique to use meaningful name pedi aname suggesting the type of contents stored hese Ce eather r+ vortabe for Bovitsg salaries ret a: _— ° ‘These notes apply also to other data structures i.e. constan arrays, structs, and also pointers. 2.4.2: Constants (a). What is a constant? A constant, just like a variable, is used to store values in constant’s value however, may not change. Constants are used to values that do not change in any run of the program includi cirele, the tax rate of a payroll processing program, the pas examination processing program, etc. (b). Declaration of constants Just like a variable, a constant’s declaration instructs the computer to allocate a space for storing the value. Two syritax for declaring a constant are; (i). #define Name Value (ii). const Type Name=Value; Example Each of the following two lines declares a constant named pi for storing value 3.14 define pi 3.14 const double pi 14; (c). Why use constants? The use of constants ensures that the Program is easy to read, write and modify. For example, consider computing the tax for three salaries based on a constant tax rate (8.5%). Two options for doing this are: Without using a constant double salaryA, salaryB, salaryC, taxA, taxB, taxC; seanf(“%lf”, &salaryA); scanf(“%lf”, &salaryB); 93seanf(**%lf”, &salaryC); taxA=8.5/100*salaryA; taxB=8,5/100*salaryB; taxC=8,5/100*salaryC; Option2 —_ Using a constant for rate const double rate=8.5; double salaryA, salaryB, salaryC, taxA, taxB, taxC; seanf{“%lt”, &salaryA); seanf(*%If”, &alaryB); scanf(“%lf”, &salaryC); taxA=rate/100*salaryA; taxB=rate/100*salaryB; taxC=rate/100*salaryC; It is clearly easy for one to read or write the Program using option 2 rather than Option 1 since it is easier to remember ¢ rather than the value 8.5 every time he/she wants value in the program Also, suppose the tax rate changes. When the programmer is modifying the program in Option 1, he/she will have to change al the oceurena of the value 85 in the program. However using Option 2 the Programmer just needs to change the value 8.5 once (in the statement const double rate=8.5;). Thus, Option? is more modifiable. 2.4.3: Identifiers (a). An identifier is the name of any object in a program e.g. a variable, 2 constant, an array, a function, a pointer, etc. What is an identifier? (b). Rules for identifiers in C as © The following are the characters that are allowed in an identifier: letters, digits, underscore. You may use a combination of these three types of valid characters, * The first character must be either an alphabet or an underscore. * An identifier can’t be a reserved word. © — Cis case sensitive. For example, the following are different identifiers: WAT, wat, Wat, wAt, waT, wAT, WaT, WA 94| pxample following names are valid identifiers in C7 hie A COMPUTER (i) main Oe pi Tid noms (vi) Rctiage Oo) Gv). Fitst_nume (ili). John ean ; @, (i), (vill), (29). i (iii) isa reserved word, (v) contains an invalid character ic , (vi) begins with a digit, (vii) contains an invalid character Fe eeibsteeeht nes (2) 2.4.4: Data Types ee (a). General data types = : There are four types of data used in Computing. They are as follo (i). Integers Meaning of integers and number systems An integer is a sequence of digits representing a whole numbe example 3, 10, 115, etc. Integers and float point numbers are values (numbers). There are four umber systems used to represen integers. They are decimal, binary, octal and hexadecimal systems @. Decimal number system (base 10 number system) The digits used im this system are 0 up to 9. It is the mostly used number system — the other systems are rarely used by Programmers, and so this book uses this system. (QD). Binary number systems (base 2 number systems) Ituses digits 0 and 1 to represent any number. (MD). Octal number system (base § number system) It uses digits 0 up to 7 to represent any number. (IV). Hexadecimal number system (base 16 number system) Ttuses digits 0 up to 9, then letters A, B, C, D, E, Fto represent decimal numbers 0 up ta 15. Thus, letters A, B, C, D, E, F represent decimal numbers 10 up to 15. ‘The system is ot case sensitive, so you can still use a, b, c, d,e, f . 95 ia Some decimal numbers and the e quivalents in the systems are as follows, Other n Umber Decimal number Base 2 Base § ; 1 1 Base 16 3 ul 3 Fi 3 1000 10 8 13 1101 Is i" 21 10101 15 We do not usually use the binary number high level programs. For more information a, systems including conversion of num another, the leamer should read intro, computing, ems when Writing out the number bers from one System to ductory materials in Representing octal and hexadecimal constant Octal numbers must be preceded by the digit 0 fumbers onthe other hand, must be preceded by cin Ox oro For example, 05 (an octal) is the decimal number § is the decimal number . Values in © Texadecimal Examples 2 Some C language codes and their Outputs for the number systems f are as shown below (©. (Outputting a decimal number as a decimal, as an octal and as | an hexadecimal) int x=21; Printi(‘\n%d”, x); Printf(“in%o”, x); Printf(‘“\n%x”, x}; Output 21 25 15 // output x as a decimal number “output x as an octal number “output x as an hexadecimal numberre Outpatting a" hexadecimal number as & decimal, as an octal a. S ‘5 an hexadecimal) iat wet Ht declare an hexadecimal member x ed”, 4); // output x as a decimal number printtin%Go", x); // output 1 a5 an octal number printf("\n%x", x); // output x as am hexadecimal Qutpat n 5 ad (i). (Adding two octal numbers) int 0345, yO233, 2; meaty} printf(“\nThe sum in octal form: %o”, 2); printf(‘“\nThe sum in decimal form: Yd”, 2); ‘The sum in octal form: 600 ‘The sum in decimal form: 384 (IV). (Adding two hexadecimal numbers) int x=0x3, y=Oxe, 25 mextys printf(*\nThe sum in hexadecimal form: %x", 2): print{(*\nThe sum in decimal form: Yd”, 2); ‘The sum in hexadecimal form: 11 ‘The sum in decimal form: 17 (ii). Floating point numbers A floating point number is a base 10 number that contains a fractional part e.g. 25.5, A floating point number can also be in exponential form, For example, 25.5 can be written as 2.55el or 2.55e+1 Floating point numbers generally have much greater range of values than integers, Characters character is any single clement that can be typed through the ¢.g. an alphabet, a special symbol (e.g. #, %, &, “), ora 7tA om 00 be td oor dig Bt “he ‘ Aer is quoted by enclosing it ip Siigle Guites nF, 9,9. Bach character has 4 unig al — it based on the ASC) Coding system, (the on ey, — Wiple, the Age Il value for *A is 65, while for Character 4 97. The a a ASCII values are shown in the Appendix section (iv), Strings A string is 4 sequence of individual characters for example, 4 name of 4 person, A string is quoted using double quotes, for cxample, “Peterson Jobnt” (note that a Space is also a character as used in thig string). The null string (or empty string) can be quoted as” example the following C the names “Peterson and “Johnt” but on betwee tes sitOe We lave sed the eseape sequene a, between string “Peterson Johnt”. Print{(“Peterson\nJohnt”), (b). The data types in C C uses various‘gable 2.2: Data types in C Size (bytes) Range a signed char | -128 to 127 e unsigned char 7 0 to 255 s int or signed int 4 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 unsigned int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295 short int or signed short int 2 ~32,768 to 32,767 unsigned short int 2 0 to 65,535 Jong int or signed long int 4 -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647 unsigned long int 4 0 to 4,294,967,295 float 4 3.4E-38 to 3.4E+38 double 8 long double 8 1.7E-308 to 1.7E+308 bool 1 True or False (or | or 0) char data type stores characters e.g, alphabets (a-z, A-Z). digits (0-9) — but can’t be used in expressions ie. are considered non-values in this case, or special literals e.g. ?,-,*, {,. int data type stores whole numbers (or integers). An int type variable occupies four bytes (based on the compiler used in this book). float data type stores numbers with fractional part. A float type variable occupies four bytes (based on the compiler used in this book). double data type stores numbers with fractional part just like float, but can store a very large value e.g. a trillion. For example, if you try to input the value 1,000,000,000,000 into a float type variable, you will get errors unlike when you input into a double type variable. long keyword in this compiler, has no effect on the storage capacity. However, in some other compilers, it makes the storage Space bigger. In that case, it can be used together with int or double. The data type long int for example, can store very large integers, while long double can store even larger numbers with fractional parts than double data type. short keyword halves the storage space allocated for an int-type variable (into two ‘You can for example declare a variable of type short int, and this ls so as to spare the computer’s memory.keyword is used for both negatives and positives inte, sally has no effect on the variable’s storage size. For cane type is the same as a signed int type. 2D inp wu keyword is used for non-negative numbers. Making q Vari unsigned has the effect that the same storage space is used but the of the positive values is twice that of signed (or normal) variables, g example, a variable of type unsigned int has the same storage size = int type variable. However, the former can store twice the maximum an positive value that the later can store. How are the above ranges of data types obtained? The mathematical rule on combinations is used in obtaining the range of values that a variable of a particular type can store. The rule shows that if we have n objects, whereby each object can take any of the x possible values, then the total number of ways we can have a combination of the n objects is x”. For example, the possible values a coin can have is 2 (Head or Tail, or just H or T). The number of ways we can arrange 3 coins is 2°=8 i.e. ‘TTT, TTH, THT, THH, HTT, HTH, HHT, HHH. Similarly, a decimal digit can take 10 possible values (i.e. 0, 1, 2, ...,9). Two digits can thus be used to represent 107=100 total numbers (i.e. the numbers 00, 01, 02, ..., 99). Similarly, 3 digits can be used to represent a total of 10°=1000 numbers (j,e. the numbers 0, 1, 2, ..., 999). In binary number systems, a bit has two possible values (i.e. 0 or 1). One bit can thus represent 2'=2 numbers (i.e. 0, or 1). A sequence of two bits can represent a total of 27=4 numbers (i.e. 00, 01, 10, or 11), which in decimal form are 0, 1, 2, and 3 (note that we start with 0 and not 1, so we don’t have number 4). Three bits can represent 2 =8 numbers (i.e. 000, 001, 010, 011, 100, 101, 110, or 111). In decimal form, these eight numbers are 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7 (note that we start with 0 and not 1, so we don’t have number 8). ‘Thus, x bits can be used to represent 2* numbers. In decimal form, and considering only positive integers, this represents value 0 followed by the first 2*-1 integers i.e. the positive integers 0, 1, 2, ..., 2-1. Examples (i). A char type variable occupies one byte (or 8 bits). The computer is thus able to represent 2°=256 characters (including all characters in Appendix A at the end of this book). For example, the null ee.a 4 x has ASCH value 0, and is thus stored as 0000000. ‘Th, | PsA tas the ASCH values 65, and is thus stored ag” ne kaie 01000001. (ji). Ashort int type variable occupies 2 bytes (or 16 bits), and can and negatives, the computer dedicates half of this capacity to negatives (i.e. the range -32,768 to -1) and the other half to positives (ie. the range 0 to 32,767), example, if you run the following code, you will notice that ua input any value in the range (-32,768 t0 32.767) to be a's value, I'you input any value outside this range, you got «logical error (the computer can’t store the input value into the variable, so it will output wrong values). short int a; scanf(“%hd”, &a); printf(“\n%ha”, a); (ii), An unsigned short int type variable occu, and can thus store 2'°=65,536 numbers. § allow negatives, we can thus store the val pies 2 bytes (or 16 bits), ince this type doesn’t lues 0, 1,2, 3, ..., 65,535. For example, if you run the following code, you will notice that You can input any value in the range (0 to 65,535) to be a’s value. If you input any value outside this Tange, you get a logical error. unsigned short int a; seanf(“Youh”, &a); Printf(“\n%uh”, a); (iv), ane Variable occupies 4 bytes (or 32 bits), and can thus ‘Store 2"°=4,294,967,296 numbers. Since we must cater for Positives and negatives, the computer dedicates half of this fo negatives (i.e. the range -2,147,483,648 to ~1) and the the range 0 to 2,147,483,647),ennigne supe variatile compos 4 leyles : VF hee " Ae oe Tink 29486298 rambo Hide Die yg pene wwe ns Chawe stews thee vateinn 9) — woop, pan the following onde, you er ese ant te ange (0 0 4.2 4 ‘eal. If you input any value cutside this range ane. on oy peteete na", a) Deciding on the type to use ‘The dasa type you to use for a variable will depen! gplications of the program you are developing ‘Fer example, if you are developing an examimation system: ah.» ‘exams’ marks are expected to be smal! and posit: Ww ose the wasigned short int (ype, as well as the char’to define an identifier that will he used tes data type. The syntax ie Be asin the data type Unsigned long int You can declare a variable x of this type as unsigned long int x; However, since the name of the dats type is quite long, you oan use the identifier Ulint to represent the data type, and dofine it ax typedef unsigned long int Ulin; Any time you use Ulint, you will be referring 1 that data type. For ‘example you can now declare x ay Ulint x; (i. The enum keyword ‘he enum keyword is used t0 declare a user defined specifying the of its type ean lke, The mean of fing nn {walues) ;subject is 2 variable of type subject, and can yay, Hore, james. : San at em tr ea james_subject=Mathss 245: Example , x%y); will Output | (the remainder byy). 2.5.2: Relational Operators Relatioy wie ores @. nl i Boolean expressions to compare Boolean expressine ‘0 Produce a value of either True or False 4 False. It's algy jon San ©xpression whose value can either be Tree Possible relational gn’ ®S @ conditi nal or a logical expression. f° as shown in the table below. pped) of dividingRelational operators Operator ___ Meaning ater than is Breater than or equal to ‘ less than ‘ee less than or equal to ss equal to not equal to Examples of some Boolean expressions and their values ar below. Table 2.5: Some Boolean expressions Expression ae | 3>7 has 3: +3) Point to Note ‘When the computer evaluates the expression, it substitutes it with the value obtained. Also, in C, value 1 is used to represent True value, and 0 to represent False value Example Assume the declaration int x=9, y=2; printf(“%d”, (x>y)); outputs 1 (for True) printf(“%d”, (x<=y)); outputs 0 (for False) : ¢ (ii). printf“%a”, (x1=y)); outputs | (for True) 2.5:3: Logical Operators Logical operators are used to combine two Boolean expressions info @ compound Boolean expression (or just compound expressions). The Tules of truth table are used to test the truth or false of compound ressions depending on the truth or false of each expression in und expression. Logical operators include the following. 107Table 2.6: Logical 0) ators Operator Meaning gk and ‘| or 1 not The truth table is shown below. Table 2.7; The truth table : P Q P&&Q|PIQ P : [F F F F a z F x F T T r F Fo ie FE 5 LT {T. be rT F ES Where T stands for True, F stands for False, and both P and Q stangs for simple expressions. Example:Some compound expressions and their values. Expression Value BI) && a FALSE G3) TRUE ef eae Here, using P to represent the expression (3<7) and Q to represent (1>3), we find that P is True while Q is False. Thus from Table 2.7, (G3) is False (using row 4 and column 3 of Table 2.7) while (3<7) | (1>3) is True (using row 4 and column 4 of Table 2.7). 2.5.4: The Assignment Operator (=) ‘The assignment operator is used to assi i ; u ign the variable on the left hand side the value of the expression which is on the right hand side. ae of b and store it in variable a”. the result in seater NEO and stow ey ota oS one to it, and store the one or just increment x”. metementthe value of x bY E means “ le Value o} a ‘decrement the valy fx by one (dec : rement x)”. 108means “multiply the values of x and y xextyh - inx and store the result Points (0 Note The assignment operator is a replacement operator as discussed Chapter one, For example, the statement ab; replaces "| (overwrites) the previous value of variable a, 4 The assignment statement is a copying process. For example, when a=b; is executed, variable b does not lose its original value Example 2 What is the output of the following section of code? int and, b6; ach; printi(‘a=%d, %d", a, b); Answer .b=6 ignments can be done in a single statement igns both x and y value 10. Note also that multiple For example, the following statement as reyes In this case, the assignment operator is right associative, ie. in the above statement, we assign y value 10, then x.the value of y 2.5.5: Shortcut Operators ions. The shorteut operators =. These operators will be Chas shortcuts for writing some expre include the following: ++, —, +=, =* explained by using the examples below ‘Table 2.8: Some shortcut expressions Expression Equivalent to ach or Hex xextl x=x- _y\ xSxXty. om xy xex"y x=x/y 109noth ++ and 2 4+ and = operators van be written : ca pore is difference between the two ware 4 compound statements (0taleMments Wilh many they ang in Chapter one og. wey; which has tim addition of | © Y, and assignment of the result 4 difference 18 8 anew _— - “use the value of * in the expression and then increment x" (past increment) sii “inerement «and then use it in the expression” increment). . Example 3 ‘What are the outputs of the following sections of code? @, intx, ys si pela, y=, 9 ints, yhHow to create an alias variable . ’ 7 & operator just before the We use the variable ‘Also, the new variable should be declaration. name initialized to the other one. during For example, the following statement declares y as an al For , ias of x int &y=%5 In this case, y is also known as a reference variable of x Example : ‘What is the output of the following statements? printf(“\nx="d, y="od”, x, y); Ee printf(“\nx=%od, y=%d”, x, y); | hes printf(“\nx=%d, y="%d”, x, y); Answer x=5, y=5 x=6, y=6 x=30, y=30 Here, changing the value of either x or y results to the other variable being changed to the same value. 2.5.7: The Ternary Operator (2:) i = a en This operator is used indecision making. Jt takes the following syntax; expression! ° expression2 : expression3 that is expression! is evaluated, If it is True, then expression? is evaluated and becomes the value of the whole expression. Otherwise. ®xpression3 js evaluated and becomes the value of the expression. ample a=10; b=15; = (>) 2 a:b; “ho Ry nas Ht 9 MWVariable x attains the value of by ie 15 This is because the (a>b) fails and therefore the value of expression b becomes the the expression ((a>b) Pash) which is then assigned to x Yalu” 2.5.8; Operator Precedence The following is a list Fihe commonly used operators and their ~~ precedence (pt jority) levels. Note that some have not yet been ¢o up to this chapter, but ‘will be explained in later chapters very recedence of operators —_ {Rank | ! (Logical negation) _ (Pointer reference) & (Address of) sizeof) * = / a = i aa Ee : 5 >2 1. ‘Type Conversion Jou can mix constants and variables of different types in an canoes For example, (vty), Where x is an int, while y is a double Cone (a). Implicit type conversion To avoid any logic errors (resulting from loss of significance) due to mixing of variables of different types in an expression, the compiler automatically converts some of the operands to the type of the other before evaluating the expression using some rules that depend from a compiler to a compiler. The basic tule is to convert the lower types to the higher types. The following lists the levels based on this basic rule Highest level: long double double float unsigned long int Jong int unsigned int int Lowest level: short, char (b). Explicit type conversion ‘The programmer can also force the conversion of some operands in an expression by specifying the new type just before an operand’s name, and putting the operand’s name inside the brackets (). For example double(nt) converts a variable m into a double type. Example Consider the code int a=3; float b=14.5, e3 c=b/float(a); printf(“%f”, ©); In the statement e=b/Moat(a);, the programmer has converted the value of variable a from an int into a float (so the new value is 3.0), so that he ‘can comfortably divide a float with another float to avoid any possible logic errors, Note that this converts the value of variable a (as currently being used) but not the variable a, Variable a in the memory remains am integer. Note that converting into a higher type does not lose any : precision, unlike converting into a lower type. i us ee.Note: that you could also write the statement as c=b/a; j ¢ conversion, because by default, the compiler will do implicit », SOmversion when it encounters a fleat (b) being divided by an ime this case, it will automatically convert a into a float ay Se 2.6: Documentation Lines — (a). What are documentation lines? Documentation lines are lines used to explain what the Program are doing. They help one to be able to read and Program. They also make the program easy to write and another programmer can understand the code easier, There are various techniques that are usually recommended (o he us by the programmer when coding his program to ensure that the Programs produced are of good quality. They include the following and eng, Seq (a). Documentation lines Documentation lines have been explained above in sub-chapter 2.6, (b). Line spacing Line spacing is leaving empty lines between sections of codes so as to Visibly distinguish among the individual sections, (c). Indenting code The use of the word Processing feature of leaving indents is also recommended in programming Sub-sections of code inside a Particular sect make them clearly identifiable this book, all the code insi 1on should be indented 10 For example, in the Programs written it in() is indented between { and }. In are identifiable inside a particuli! © 18 Sy 10 read, debug, wi”ood programming techniques are used below (in sub- ll se yaa also through out this book a chapte 2 ao Solved Problems 2.9.1: Problem 1 eS ae fae mame or the debiigs of the two programs shown in Chapter one in sections 1.4.3, and 1.6 Solutions (@), Program to compute area and circumference of a circle. 7 program to compute the area circumference of a circle. * #include | ddefine Pi3.14 _// Declare a constant for pi=3.14 void main() | /( Declare variables to hold the radius, area, circu’ double Radius, Area, Circumference; ence | (Input the radius | printf(“\nlnput the radius”); scanf(“%lf”, &Radius); / Compute the area and the circumference Area=Pi*Radius*Radius; Circumference=2*Pi*Radius; // output area, circumference printf(“\nArea: %lf, Circumference: %f”, Area, Circumference); ) : 0). Program to compute the mean mark of a stude: /* program to compute the mean mark */ #inelude Void main() { 1 Declarations double mark1, mark2, mark3, mean; Input the marks the first mark ”); scanf(“%If”, M7fC%IE”, &marid), “lf”, &mark3); ‘the seeond mark ” ‘printi(\ninput Th nd mark ") sean printf(“\ninpat a k // Compute the mean mar eres! +mark2+mark3)/3; ik // Output the mean mart : 5 oeatie mean mark is %If’, mean); ja are eer aes 2.9.2: Problem 2 Give all the programming errors in the program below. ag /* program to compute the mean of three numbers using C an) lage }Alnclude void main(); | { declare three numbers and the mean double num1, num2, num3, mean // input the three numbers Print{(Input the three numbers”); seanf(“%IP?, &numt); seanf(“%If”, &num2); Seanf(“%6lF”, &num3); // compute mean meannum | snum2+num3/3. // output the sum Printf“\nThe mean is “Alf”, Mean); Solution LINE EREOR : is a fee should end With 4/ ang t /* inctegee ot Belude is nor 4 Teserved word, It should be Syntax errop 1; «Line shy ‘ Syntax. Ine should not i error, end with a ‘ Sy Ane should e ae Semi colon. Logie error. igen smi colon. be insid Only num, i the *> quotes, ded by three. Tt shouldbesyntias error, Mean is not declared. ty Syntax error: Program does not end with a} yet Problem 3 Fate & program to input the price and the quantity Siaien une ¢an item. The program then compute sel cio be pale Assume a discount of 5° * the discount and the Solution (a) Problem analysis Outputs ey Tee nouns for the sale Variables amount The discount given discount The total amount to be paid total ). Inputs Price of an item price Quantity purchased quantity (iit). Tasks 1 Input the price and the quantity HL. Compute the amount, the discount, and the total amount ME Output the amount, the discount, and the total amount v). Constant The discount rate discount_rate=5 (b). Algorithm @. Pseudo code Begin discount_rate=5 Input price, quantity amount=(price* quantity) discount=amount*discount_rate/100 ‘otl=amount-discount Output amount, discount, total 19(i, Floweharts Input price, quantity amount=price* quantity discount=amount*discount_rate/100 total=amount-discount Output amount, discount, total (c). The program a /* PROGRAM TO COMPUTE THE SALES AMOUNT Any THE DISCOUNT */ #include void main() { // Declarations double price, discount, amount, total; const float discount_rate=5 int quantity; I Input the price and the quantity Print{(“\ntnput the price: ”); scanf(“%lf”, &price); Print{(“\nlnput the quantity: »); scanf(“%d”, &quantity) // Computations amount=price* quantity; discount= + di : total=amountedi oo 100; // Outputtiny— ‘ells the compiler to _ (b), The work of the braces { and } is to __@*\ (©). In, words like main, include are known as @ The main difference between a variable and a constant is that (©). The keyword unsigned is used to (. State the work of the following operators @. % =p Gill. 4 : (iv). ! @). & ys" (@. What types of programming errors are the following? (@. Endless loop . Using undeclared variable \ ii), Division by zero (iv), Use of opening double quotes without corresponding ending quotes (v). Using wrong formulae to>\° (h). The keyword bool means pee ee (What is the work of the following keywords? (. char (I). unsigned (UD. const (V). main (Vb. include ©). What types of data do the following type identifiers represent? @. %s (ii). %ef (iii). %0 (iv). %i (¥). %[abed}s (vi). %f" Is (vii). sate (viii). %8.3f (ix), 9054 0). 6d (xi). %09.21F 121