“You are imperfect, permanently and inevitably flawed. And you are beautiful.

- Amy Bloom

Introduction
There is always a pressure in our society to look good, and to seek a visually better
version of ourselves. We often get so caught up with the ways we can make sure that we look
beautiful and nice, that sometimes, we frown at our natural looks, our dark complexion
perhaps, or even our short stature.
The social pressure of looking perfect gave rise to the many beauty products and
enhancement procedures, being patronized by a large portion of our population, no matter
how expensive they might be, just to fit in, to be accepted, and be beautiful. In the global
society where fairer skin and size zero for women are deemed attractive if not stunning, we can
only expect ourselves to follow and abide by the mantra, “Beauty is Power”, no matter how
destructive it might be for us.
Our physical selves have become so dependent on the judgment of our appearance and
not with the celebration of it. In this chapter, we will look at the work of nature and nurture,
and how it greatly influences the features of our physical selves, particularly how we look and
how standards of beauty, both in local and global contexts have affected our self-acceptance.
We will also look into the different cultural standards of beauty and how it has affected our self-
concept, our self-esteem and body image, and realize that beauty in all shapes and sizes is
meant to be celebrated.
Why do I Look Like Myself?
Have you ever faced the mirror and asked yourself, “Why do I look like me?” Science
explains that our parents are very much instrumental in understanding why we look how we
look. Gregor Mendel first figured out how genes are passed from parents to offspring in plants,
including humans. His experiments on pea plants showed that genes are passed intact from
generation to generation and that traits are not blended. Mendel’s discovery was that it is
through the genes that traits were passed from parent to offspring through several generations
(Cummings, 2016).
Genetics definitely has a hand on our physical appearance. Our biology dictates that our
looks are a result of the genes transferred to us by our parents. From our skin tone, hair color,
to our height, our physical features are an evidence that we are our parents’ children. When
heredity is actually at work, we find ourselves being the mirrors of our parents, which was the
result of their DNAs (deoxyribonucleic acid) at work in us and for some even looking like carbon
copies of them.

Cultural Standards of Beauty

Defining beauty can be a very daunting task. Suffice it to say that describing such would
be very problematic since it is contextual to say the least. As culture decides the norms of the
society, it concept of what is beautiful is similarly invoked from a cultural perspective.
Different cultures have different standards of beauty. During the 19 th century in the
African country of Tahiti, it was recorded that some men and women were set aside in a special
place for fattening purposes (Pollock, 1995). In addition, they were covered in large amounts of
tapa barkcloth which, after the ritual is over, reveals a lighter skin for those who were selected.
The goal of this ritual is to enhance their beauty, not only by feeding them but by making sure
that they get a lighter skin afterwards.
“Fattening Rooms” are used less these days but are still relevant among well-off families
(Brink, 1995). This was also recorded in Nigeria during the ancient times when being fat was
viewed as a sign of prosperity, fertility and beauty (The Fattening Room, Nkugho, n.d.). These
examples impeccably depict how beauty is espoused distinctly in different societies.
Lakoff and Scherr (1989), in their book Face Value: The Politics of Beauty, explain this
perfectly saying that . . . “beauty was not just a product of wealth, but a commodity in and of
itself. In other words, it was no longer a matter of looking to wealth to find beauty, but of
looking to beauty to find status. Now, beauty could give the illusion if wealth.”

In the Philippines, the construction of local standards of beauty can be traced from our
colonial influences. Skin color signifies the value of the people in society. Lighter skinned
individuals are considered higher in terms of social status and therefore in the social rank
compared to those with brown or dark skin (Rondilla, 2012). Our concept of physical selves as
Filiipinos is largely associated with our skin color. Historically, our people were colonized by
fairer skinned races – the Spaniards, the Americans and the Japanese.

The colonization of our country by these white – skinned people lasted for more than
three centuries. We were forced to believe that they were the more superior people, more
civilized, and even how they look were deemed as standard beauty –a very Eurocentric
perspective, which has influenced our concept of attractiveness even today. Free as we are
claiming we are, still our mindset is still a slave to the white culture. Their whiteness has
become a goal for most Filipinos that even our television and movie personalities have mirror
their looks.

The Filipino Obsession with Beauty: The Case of Xander Ford

The Filipinos obsession with beauty translates not only with women, but also with men.
Take the case of Xander Ford, previously known as MarloyArizala, a former member of Hasht5-
a teen boy who became an online sensation not because of their former attractiveness, or
talent but because of the disgust and animosity they receive for their “ugly” faces.

Xander’s decision to alter his physical appearance was not

without the pressure of the society to look good, if not
better. He was not spared from bullying since he became
an internet sensation because by our standards, he simply
is unattractive.
His decision to go under the knife was because of a lookist
culture which dictates that happiness is only afforded to
good-looking people (Estrada, 2017). As our society puts
premium to Eurocentric standard of Beauty, we victimize
our own people for looking otherwise. For Xander Ford, it
was good sponsored by a cosmetic surgery clinic unlike
many who shell out thousands if not millions just to look
physically appealing.
Xander Ford’s cosmetic surgery perhaps can be called a
success. Yet, not all surgeries are deemed safe. Dr. Samuel Eric Yapjuanco, Xander’s plastic
surgeon, conducted three procedures on businesswoman ShirylSaturnino, March of last year,
but the latter died in the process. Reports from the Philipine National Crime Laboratory say that
Ms.Saturnino died of fat embolism – a condition where there was fat in the blood vessels which
entered into the lungs of the victim, making it hard for her to breathe (Sallan, 2017).
 Truth is, women have been evaluated based on
their appearance more than men (Wade, 2017).
They have been valued and devalued based on how
they look. It is for this reason that many of them fall
prey to even unnecessary cosmetic surgeries due to
that desire of wanting to look good, if not perfect.
Health concerns are foremost to be considered
before going through these kinds of surgeries. Yet,
there are those who feel that there is always a need
for them to alter whichever part of their body,
because they feel that they do not look beautiful,
even if you tell them that they alrady are. This
perspective seems to be the case not only for a lot of
millennial but for those who are suffering from Body
Dysmorphic Disorder or BDD.
Those who are suffering from body
dysmorphic disorder are so obsessed about their
appearance, thus think about their flaws, real or not,
incessantly and uncontrollably. Those who are
diagnosed with this disorder are very much
preoccupied by a perceived physical flaw that is
either absent or so trivial that only the one suffering
from it sees it as a problem, being so much
distressed about it , that daily routines are affected .
Those who are suffering from this disorder
are so self-anxious that they seek cosmetic surgeries
to finally solve their body issues. Dr. Yaochangco
explains this obsession of millennials with plastic
surgery in the case of millennial saying, “They want
to be more pleasing, to be more beautiful. They consider that having a beautiful face and body
is always an edge in most aspects of life, especially in getting into their chosen career.

A Healthy Body Image, and Self-Esteem in Peril

The quest for physical perfection has brought us to an ordeal that will not end unless
we got to the bottom of the problem. Our society has not only placed so much importance on
looking beautiful but also has done a great job in commercializing the same. Even the
Americans are in trouble for wanting to be physically appealing as seen in the statistics.

Perhaps, at one point in our lives, we have been implicitly or explicitly criticized or even
ridiculed for how we look. Our standards have become so unbearable that our society mocks us
for looking imperfect. This has caused many lost to lose confidence in our selves and break that
one last strand of self-esteem that we do have. when women in particular get called out for
being heavy if not obese they are not called as such by people to remind them to get healthy
for their own good, but to just vilify their looks and magnify their imperfection . this in turn,
results to not only having a strong desire for the bullied to get thin, but with it also comes that
fear of gaining weight does restricting themselves from food intake.

Anorexia is defined as “a serious mental illness where people are of low weight due to
limiting their energy intake. It can affect anyone of any age, gender or background. As well as
restricting the amount of food eaten, they may do lots of exercise to get rid of food eaten. Some
people with anorexia may experience cycles of binging or (eating large amount of food at once)
and then purging period.
This is not the only suffering of those who have been criticized for their weight period
body shaming, which is criticizing yourself or others because of some aspect of physical
appearance has resulted in the loss of self confidence of those who have been thin shamed or
fat shamed.
Body Image Disturbance (BID) is an important aspect of several pathologies in
psychology, particularly eating disorders. It has two components: The perpetual component
which refers to how we accurately perceive our body size, also known as body size estimation
and the attitudinal component which refers to how we think and feel about the size or shape of
our body, which if not correctly processed will result to body dissatisfaction.
 Stice and Whitenton (2012) found out that body dissatisfaction is linked with mental
disorders including depression and anxiety among adolescents. This is very much alarming since
statistics have shown how much of today's generation have fallen prey from body image
disturbance.
The Filtered Self
The advent of social media put pressure on us to look even better . on instagram , the
most famous photo sharing application known to us to date , we post our most physically
appealing self and more often than not we use filter applications where we can hide our
imperfections , creating and we creating a self that is better approved by our online
friends .instagram , together with the many other photo sharing applications give us the
freedom to alter our looks and present our physical selves not just the way we want it but the
way our society approves it
Today’s youngsters are sadly the victim of such since we leave at a time when our self
approval depends on the lights shares and comments of our social media posts.
When our filtered photos look better than the unfiltered ones and the virtual world
agrees with tend to keep everything that way. There is the possibility however , that the more
we approve of the filtered us , the more that we disregard our real, and filtered physical selves
period.
Celebrating Beauty in Diversity
Cultural concepts of beauty should be celebrated. However, practices that enhance
attractiveness yet are severely harmful to our health, should be stopped. In her book, Beauty
and Misogyny: Harmful Cultural Practices in the West Sheila Jeffreys (2005) explained that it is
not enough to know that there are a lot of beauty enhancement practices that are detrimental
to women's health. For her, women should stand against the cultural requirement on what they
should do with their bodies. Thus, a celebration of beauty and diversity requires, as she calls it,
a culture of resistance. This is a culture that veers away from the dictates of what women in
society should look like to be called beautiful.
We are challenged at this time to speak up against body shaming particularly that we
are living in an image driven virtual society. Embracing our physical selves entails affirming each
other regardless of our skin color, stature and body mass index. There is a need to defend those
who do not fall under the idyllic image of thin and beautiful. We should never allow ourselves
to be victims of this since we are supposed to celebrate the authentic us, where we do not
need to hide our physical flaws and to resist the demands of a depreciating image driven by
society.
You are who you look! Embracing your Physical Self
In a society that worships perfection, embracing our physical selves is not going to be
easy. Still and all, being positive about how will look can definitely work miracles. In the book of
psalms in the sacred scriptures we are deemed as the masterpiece of the creator of the
universe, carefully, precisely and worthily created Psalms 139:14.this idea of embracing one's
value is also seen and sacred text of other religious beliefs.
The significance of self-acceptance is necessary in embracing our physical selves. We
need not fret if the way we look does not live up to the standards set by our society. We have
to be reminded that our health is foremost in all this. Remember that body size, shape, skin
color, and stature are never correct indicators of a healthy life. There is nothing more important
than to learn to accept and embrace who we are, with all the beauty, flaws and imperfection,
because this is the only way that we can live in peace and at peace with our selves.

References:

Paleanet. al. (2018). Introspection: Understanfing the self. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
Bataraet. al., (2018). Understanding the Self: The Journey towards a Holistic Me. Verbum Books
Otig, V.S. et., Al. (2018). A Holistic Approach in Understanding the Self: A Workbook-Textbook
for College Students.

Specific Leaning Objectives

After working on this module, the students must be able to:

1. Explain one’s understanding of sexuality.

2. Integrating one’s sexuality in understanding one’s self and identity
Introduction
Our sexuality is part of who we are. Weather we feel comfortable talking about it or not,
it is undoubtedly an aspect of our self that the earlier we properly learn about, the better we
can understand who we are and who we can become.
In this chapter, we will try to deal with sexuality from an academic and scientific
perspective relevant to understanding who we are so we made know better how to take care
and protect ourselves and even those we love.
Sexuality is commonly defined as the ways people experience and express themselves as
sexual beings. However, the world health organization provides a working definition of the term
sexuality that encompasses or specifies much more period as you read the definition of WHO
try to digest it sentence and see how it helps you in better comprehending the concept.
Sexuality is a central aspect of being human throughout life encompasses sex, gender
identities and roles, sexual orientation, eroticism, pleasure, intimacy and reproduction.
Sexuality is experienced and expressed in thoughts, fantasies, desires, beliefs, attitudes,
values, behaviors, practices, roles and relationships. While six wallet e can include all
this dimensions, not all of them are always experienced or expressed.
Our view about sexuality is heavily affected by education, occupation, income,
economics, law, politics, history, media, society, culture and religion. Recognizing that
numerous factors influence one's view about sexuality since we were young explains a lot - as
we observe and make sense of the lives of people we know, the communities we have seen and
even the way we ourselves react or respond to various issues on sexuality.

Asking about or admitting ignorance on the topic of sexuality in the Philippine culture
seems to be taboo or degrading. This seems evident in the few data collected nationally on
sexual health, or sexual practices or behavior.
Ignorance has to be addressed through proper education. Sex education may not yet
been implemented in our country but this does not mean that learning cannot take place. If
more Filipinos would continue to learn, whether formally or informally about proper sex
education then it may be indirectly passed on to young children through teaching proper
hygiene or through being discerning of a child's actions, reactions, questions or comments
about sex. Sex education is not to promote sexual intercourse but the promote good sexual
health and safety from sexual violence.
“Withholding information about sex and sexuality will not keep children safe, it will
only keep them ignorant” (Hauser, 2013 para 2).
We may have encountered the term sex and gender being used interchangeably. For
better comprehension, we have to ascertain that these two terms are not synonymous. Katz
Wise et al (2016) states that:
Sex refers to a person's characterization as female or male at birth, typically based on
the appearance of external genitalia or other biological characteristics including
 chromosomes whereas gender refers to social characteristics that may be or not be
aligned with a person's sex and adopted by an individual after gender identity.

DEVELOPMENT OF SECONDARY SEX CHARACTERISTICS

Puberty could have been less stressful if only we were properly oriented of what to
expect physically and emotionally. Just by reading a few academic books on sexuality we would
be comforted to know of how normal the things and feelings we thought were abnormal- of
how we are not alone and that everybody or anybody experiencing puberty has undergone the
same things we have tried to hide and pretended not to have come across.
“It's normal for everyone to become more sexually aware but it doesn't mean you are
ready to have sex (Cole, 2009, p. 11).
“Puberty is the one to three year process of horrmonal and physical change that causes
the young person to reach sexual maturity, girls usually entering it about a year or two earlier
than boys” (Pickhardt, 2010).
Though expected to transpire, puberty is not a one-size-fits-all experience. It could
manifest in varying rates and specific ages. Every individual develops and reacts in different
ways due to factors like stress, weight, nutrition and inherent characteristics.

On average, the puberty growth spurt for girls starts at 9, peaks at 11.5; for boys it starts
at 11 .5 peaks at 13.5. During this time, one’s secondary sex characteristics develop.
 Secondary sex characteristics are traits that differ between the two sexes but are not
part of the reproductive system. They include breasts in female and facial hair in males. As the
secondary sex characteristics manifest in the stage of puberty, there is a concurrent
development happening in the brain.
“The emotional region of the brain develops maturity ahead of the part controlling the
rational thought” (Cole, 2009)
Emotions tend to take over which makes the transition to adulthood and sexual
maturity more challenging. Since most teenagers are not oriented on the drastic
transformations and temporary emotional takeover, sentiments and anxieties are not
communicated and handled well which may be misconstrued by adults or relatives as mere
drama, attention seeking and rebelling maneuvers.
Supposedly simple things such as choosing sanitary napkins, panty liners, brassieres,
shaving products, acne solution or deodorant become gargantuan tasks. Even seeking for help,
asking questions or just discussing with parents or elders about the changes encountered
becomes an embarrassing ordeal.
Mishandled stress, sadness, shame, low self esteem and unmet expectations from
school, work, family and peers may lead the depression. Depression not immediately address
leads to graver problems like mental instability, even suicide. Moreover, young men are more
likely to be arrested than anyone else in society. Statistics show that for most boys, criminal
behavior begins around the age of 13, peaks at 17 and disappears in early adulthood.
All adults have gone through puberty but not all adults have gone through proper sex
education. May the current and next generation be better guided and protected through
quality and free education.

Erogenous zones
Being aware of the erogenous or sexually stimulating zones of both sexes seem to be
interesting or awkward when discussed in class. But this is definitely relevant and beneficial not
only for sexual excitement but also for protection against sexual violence. When the erogenous
zones are touched, there is an expected automatic sensation. However, the quality of the
sensation depends on who and how the zones are being touched. Below is an image showing
the erogenous zones of males and females.

Erogenous zones are usually discussed in magazines, on the net and casual
conversations mostly in relation to pleasurable sex by consenting adults. Unfortunately,
horribly, sex does not always happen with consent and it is not always pleasurable, safe, and
healthy.
 Though far from being a pleasant topic, we all need to be aware of the importance of
how to take care of ourselves, protect ourselves, our loved ones and the young children from
the reality that we are still working on eradicating sexual violence.

"You're not a victim for sharing your story. You are a Survivor for sharing your story.
You are a Survivor setting the world on fire with your truth. And you never know who
needs your light, your warmth, and raging courage"- Alex Elle
Continue reading with an open mind and a courageous heart. This is not to scare you
bought to equip and empower you with knowledge and vigilance and even the capability of
protecting and helping others.

Sexual violence is defined by WHO (2012) as:

Any sexual act, attempt to obtain a sexual act, unwanted sexual comments or advances,
or act to traffic or otherwise directed against a person's sexuality using coercion any
person regardless of the relationship to the victim, in any setting including but not
limited to home and work.
It is appalling to notes that our country is not exempted from having victims of sexual
violence .Below is a summary of a study done in the Philippines:

SEXUAL VIOLENCE PERPETRATORS

Approximately 1 in 4 children experience The main perpetrators are fathers and
some sort of sexual violence. family members (i.e. brothers and
The majority of incidents are reported to cousins), neighbors and dating partners.
occur at home, in the community and during 7 in 10 perpetrators of sexual violence
dating. are males.
Children aged 13-17 experience the most
sexual violence, including forced sex.
Younger boys in the 13-18 age group are at a
higher risk of sexual violence in every
setting: the home, school, workplace,
community and during dating.
 In our own ways, we can prevent sexual violence one little step at a time. Be aware. Be
vigilant, not paranoid. Educate others how they can protect themselves. Increase media
literacy. Filter what ideas you expose yourself to. Talk to people who can help and report to
concerned agencies based on republic act 9262.
 Department of Social Welfare and Development (DSWD)

 National Commission on the Role of Filipino Women (NCRFW)

 Civil Service Commission (CSC)

 Commission on Human Rights (CHR)

 Council for the Welfare of Children (CWC)

 Department of Justice (DOJ)

 Department of the Interior and Local Government (DILG)

 Philippine National Police (PNP)

 Department of health (DOH)

 Department of Education (DepEd)

 Department of labor and employment (DOLE)

 National bureau of investigation (NBI)

Understanding Human Sexual Response

Media show numerous concepts about sex, lust
and desire which could be explicitly or implicitly
embedded in ads, magazines, movies, tv shows, radio
programs, games etc . The four trials on sex are left for
the general public to process. If the audience are not
high media literate, concepts of healthy-safe sex ,
morality and even love could be blurred and become
double-standard .
“Falling in love is stronger than the sex drive”-
Fisher, 2005.
Sex is also at times called “love making” giving
premium to the act being based on and done out of
love. Science, like it always does, try to explain the thing
we call love. Despite the many efforts it admits not
being able to identify the exact reason why we fall in
love with a specific person.
 However, it is able to give reasonable basis and glimpses of what happens inside our
brain in the stages of love. It also gives us tips on how to keep the chemistry alive.
According to Fisher, we are drawn to certain people not only for cultural reasons such as
socio-economics, intelligence and values but also for biological reasons. Furthermore, she
asserted that there are three stages of romantic love as far as our brain chemicals are
concerned: lust, attraction and attachment.
In the figure, we see what hormones or chemicals are emitted and what effects there
are in each stage. It also in a way differentiates a lust from love.
To be able to maintain dopamine and oxytocin,
couples need to keep trying something new together-
food, movie, hobby, travel, etc.- and they also have to
spend time with each other and feel each other's
warmth through gentle touch , holding hands , hugging ,
etc.
It is reassuring to know that even scientific
research or neuroscience emphasizes the importance of
commitment, consistency and effort in a relationship to
be able to sustain, revive or restore the chemistry of
love .
According to Maslar (2016) in her TEDx talk, the
right time for a female to agree to have sex with her
male partner is when he commits to the relationship which is never on the first date.
Surprisingly, this box up the claim of most of our elders advice for a better and long lasting
relationship. What is even more surprising is that this is backed up by neuroscience.
Once one decides to engage in sexual intimacy, there is a sexual response pattern that
will occur. This pertains to the physical and emotional responses one experiences during a
sexual activity. There are several models for sexual response cycle but the 2 most renowned
linear models for sexual response cycle are: 1 Masters and Johnson's and 2. Kaplan's.

According to Kaplan, the desire to have sex is important in a sexual act. This is backed up
by Wolfson (2010) stating that desire and sexuality are practically inextricable. Whatever we
desire is a summation of what we have been exposed to or shown growing up. This is a
reminder for us to be careful of what we continually expose ourselves to.

Diversity of Sexual Orientation

We will always have our own personal stand, belief and preferences and it is just logical
to expect others to have their own. Being able to respect diversity can help in effective, ethical,
relational and professional communication.
“Many teenagers who have crushes on people of the same sex never have same sex
relationship”- Cole, 2009
Sexual Orientation refers to our sexual preferences towards males, females or both.
Most of us already have awareness of the existence of diverse sexual behaviors due to a
person's sexual preference. We may not be able to fully understand but we have to give
respect.
Gender Identity is one's concept of being male, female, both or neither and is entirely
determined by socialization (nurture), not biological factors (nature).
In the acronym LGBT which stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender “LGB”
pertains to sexual orientation. Below are some types of sexual orientations:

The T in LGBT, which stands for transgender or gender nonconforming, pertains to gender
identity. Some who do not identify as either male or female prefer the term gender-queer.
Below are some types of gender identity:
o CISGENDER/ CIS

o Gender identity consistent is with the sex they were assigned at birth

o TRANSGENDER/ TRANS

o Gender identity does not match the sex they were assigned at birth
 o AGENDER

o People who do not identify with any gender

o NON-BINARY

o People who do not identify strictly as a boy or a girl- they could identify as both,
or neither, or as another gender entirely

A transgender is different from a transsexual. A transsexual is one who transitions from

one sex to another through undergoing several surgical procedures. Though we may have
experienced having feelings towards or fantasies about people of the same sex, it doesn't mean
you are gay or bisexual period it can be part of emerging sexual awareness. Sexual orientation,
sexual behavior and gender identity are independent concepts. All could be fluid or changing.
We may have the freedom to choose to whom we engage sex with and with how many, but if
we are not careful and discerning we cannot and will never be able to choose or limit the
number of unpleasant irreversible long-term consequences it can bring to our lives, to people
who matter most to us and even to the society we are part of.

Sexually transmitted infections STI

Engaging in sexual contact, either vaginal, oral or anal can give temporary intense
pleasure and with it a possibility of transmitting more than 30 different bacteria viruses and
parasites that may result to a lifetime of sexually transmitted infections. Below are the key
factors on STI from W.H.O.

In our country the number of HIV and AIDs cases increases every year period. In August
2017, the Philippines was said to have the highest HIV growth rate in the Asia-Pacific.

The regions with the highest number of cases reported in July to August were the
National Capital Region with 732 cases; Western Visayas with 121; and Davao region with 116
cases.
 Most cases of
transmission or through
male to male sex and in
age range of 14 to 24.
STI can be asymptomatic
or without symptoms
which makes it more
difficult to address.
Prevention is always
better than cure. With
HIV and AIDs prevention
is unquestionably better
since until now there is
still no cure.

Family Planning/
Contraception
The information
on family planning and
contraception is for everyone, even for those who are still in their adolescent years. To be
educated on family planning and contraception is to be protected from sexually transmitted
infections and unintended pregnancies.
The family planning program intend to provide accessible information on sexual and
reproductive health for people to choose from depending on their needs and preferences.
Contraception is focused on the ways to prevent pregnancy in line with the family planning
program.
For in-depth information and safe sexual health decisions, it is always best to consult
with the medical expert. Misuse and abuse of use of artificial contraception may lead to severe
health risks.
Our country's Department of Health has 4 basic principles in implementing the program
which adolescents and other can relate with either as a child or soon to be parent.
1. Responsible parenthood which means that each family has the right and duty to
determine the desired number of children they might have and when they might have
them. And beyond responsible parenthood is responsible parenting which is the proper
upbringing and education of children so that they grow up to be upright, productive and
civic minded citizens.
2. Respect for life. The 1987 constitution states that the government protects the
sanctity of life. Abortion is not a family planning method.
3. Birth spacing refers to interval between pregnancies which is ideally 3 years. It
enables women to recover their health and improve women's potential to be more
productive and to realize their personal aspirations and allow more time to care for
children and spouse.
 4. Informed choice that is upholding and ensuring the rights of couples to determine the
number and spacing of their children according to their life's aspiration and reminding
couples that planning size of their families has a direct bearing on the quality of their
children's and their own lives.
To aid in family planning are a range of natural and artificial types of contraception to
choose from. Abstinence, not engaging in any form of sex, a natural method is the most
effective means of contraception since time immemorial .
Below are the types and effectiveness family planning methods.

References:
Palean et. al. (2018). Introspection: Understanfing the self. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
Batara et. al., (2018). Understanding the Self: The Journey towards a Holistic Me. Verbum Books
Otig, V.S. et., Al. (2018). A Holistic Approach in Understanding the Self: A Workbook-Textbook
for College Students.
 Specific Learning Objectives

After working on this module, the students must be able to:

1. Explore the different aspects of self and identity.

2. Demonstrate critical, reflective thought in integrating the various aspects of self and identity.
3. Identify the different forces and institutions that impact the development of various aspects of self and identity.

“I was absolute master of y old dressing gown, but I have become a slave to my new one.”
- Denis Diderot
ACTIVITY 1.

A. INTRODUCTION
Have your parents, at one point, ever bought something, say a center table from your
local shopping mall and returned home only to realize how all the furniture in the living room
look so old and dusty in comparison? Did they immediately go back to the mall to buy a new
rug and an ornate vase, maybe also a couple of upholstered pillows thrown in for good
measure, to complement the newly-purchased item? If your answer to both is yeas, then the
so-called “Diderot Effect”, one of the most commonly experienced phenomena of consumption
out there, has already taken hold them.
Originally articulated through an essay entitled “Regrets on Parting with My Old
Dressing Gown” by 18th century French philosopher Denis Diderot, this phenomenon suggests
that one innocent purchase can unexpectedly spiral into an endless cycle of complementary
consumption: the kind which preys on one’s yearning for a cohesive identity.

The Material Self: Living in a Material World

“In its widest possible sense, a man’s self is the sum total of all that he can call his.”

- William James

For 19th century philosopher William James (1842 - 1910), an individual’s selfhood can be broken
down into several fragments, with the material self being one. Aside from the physical body, which is
considered its central constituent unit, this facet of the self also includes one’s closest relatives and
material possessions, with specific focus in clothes. The former is the reason why we grieve over the
death of a loved one, and the latter as affirmation that what we wear is an extension of who we are or
try to be. Hermann lotze in Microcosmus (1890) asserted that each time we get to wear garments of
varying kind is a chance for us to “bring them into relationship with the surface of our body” and inject
them with the very “consciousness of our personal existence”.
Next are the properties one gets to acquire through time (i.e. a house). The accumulation of
such comprises the empirical self’s wealth, and is thus perceived as “most intimately ours”, for it is made
possibly by our labor. Remember that time when you needed to work twice as hard in school, or in
carrying out some household chores, so that your parents will get you the toy you wanted to have? In
short, the purchase of an item is not just considered an investment in the monetary sense (because you
can always sell it sooner or later) but also from the standpoint of the material self. We develop an
attachment with most of the things we buy because we accord the same to the resources that enable us
to accomplish the transaction. This rationalizes our feeling of sadness upon, for instance, losing of our
personal belongings or having the entirety of our shoe collection be swept away in a flood. This is what
William James in the face of material loss, considers the “shrinkage of the personality”. This is why we
“die a little” everytime we lose some of our possessions.

To slightly modify a well-known aphorism: “Necessity is the mother of consumption.” We

consume because we need to. Essentials like food and clothing are bought, and so is shelter. In our
every waking moment, we transact for goods and services. In supermarkets and shopping malls, we give
away what is essentially the material manifestation of our labor (money) in exchange for a myriad of
items, some of which we are consistently made aware through commercial advertisements.
Back then, our ideas about readily available consumer items are mainly picked up from print
(newspapers and magazines) and television. But with the surge in popularity of social networking sites
like Facebook, Twitter and Instagram, information on goods and services are able to reach us at a much
faster rate. Nowadays, advertisers need not wait for us to get home before they bombard us with details
about their clients’ products; they need only to strategically tap into our smart phones.
“People are now, more than ever, better informed of their needs,” says the believer. “We are
under attack on all fronts,” says the cynic. But the irrefutable fact is this: consumption has become so
pervasive that it now seems second nature to all of us; part of our identity, even. The role of products
and services in our lives are now above their literal purpose, for they have become the means through
which we express our “lifestyle”. Apparently, brands are not anymore just mere veneers on deeper
identities but have become surrogates to who we are (Barber, 2007).
On the flip side, not every society puts premium on material consumption. In some of agrarian
orientation, basic subsistence is the way of life. From their perspective, food is not much bought as they
are planted and eventually harvested. This stands in stark contrast with various contemporary Western
cultures, which removes focus on austerity while increasing emphasis on buying (Berger, 2010).

I SAW THE SIGN: THE SEMIOTICS OF CONSUMPTION

“To see someone not seeing is the best way of seeing intensely what he doesn’t see.”
- Roland Barthes

Our everyday interactions are

governed by signs and symbols.
Even outside linguistics and
literature, from which semiotics
was said to have originated, we
still encounter systems of codes
from which we draw meaning,
including the typology with which
consumer culture operates.
 According to Ferdinand de Saussure (1857-1913), meanings are based off conventions and are,
by nature, arbitrary. Words, therefore, are unmotivated signs, with no fixed definitions. Essentially,
present always is the signifier, which can be a phrase, sound, or image, and the signified, or the concept
or abstraction attached to it. The relationship between the two is never stable, and can change over
time, either synchronically (at a given point) or diachronically (over a relative period of time).
In addition, meanings assigned to words are said to be relational; that is, one cannot be defined
in complete isolation from others (Barry, 2002). For example, the proper meanings of the word
“terrorist” can only be clarified if compared with similar ones, such as “guerrillas”, “freedom fighters”,
and “paramilitaries”. This is called the paradigmatic chain: a continuum of words with identical functions
that can serve as substitute for each other, though some may not be as neutral when used. This is
justified by how symbols are frequently seen as being imbued with very specific historical or cultural
significations, depending on one’s sociocultural/ sociopolitical background.

From the standpoint of the individual, meanings attached to symbols are already but a given, for
he/she already finds it extant in the community of which he/she is a member, with just partial
modifications over time (Geertz, 1973). This is why Coca-Cola is embraced in the west as emblematic of
the American enterprising spirit, but seen as an imperialist product to be boycotted with abandon by
people of socialist persuasions. For Emile Benveniste (1973), the very foundations of subjectivity are
determined by a person’s linguistic status; by the dominant discursive in his/her immediate context
(Silverman, 1983).

Langue and Parole

As for the larger structures of language, Saussure coined the terms langue and parole. By
definition, langue is language as a structure that dictates the rules ad conventions, while parole is any
given linguistic fragment or item extracted from the very structure. For instance, the “Filipino” language
is the langue, and a remark or verbal utterance belonging to it is the parole.

Denotation and Connotation

 Semioticians repeatedly note the importance of knowing the difference between denotation
and connotation. Denotation (or the “object language”) is defined as the literal interpretation of
something, while connotation pertains to culture-specific meanings and ideologies, attached to it for
purposes of myth-making. Roland Barthers (1972) observed that advertisers strive to peddle to the
public not just consumer goods but also the ideologies and mystifications that seem to permeate them.
In doing so habitually and for long periods of time (through the frequent airing of television
commercials, for example), the connotations become the natural, common-sense reality of the products
(Coward & Ellis, 1977).

FERNANDO POE JR.

DENOTATIVE MEANING CONNOTATIVE MEANING
 Anchorage and Relay
In his book “The Rhetoric of the Image”, Roland Barthes (1978) wrote of two kinds of
relationships between text and image: anchorage and relay. By definition, anchorage underlines
the importance of text in making sense of an image, while relay puts emphasis on a more
complementary relationships between the two. Advertisements, with its copies and slogans,
are replete with the former, while comic strips, with its panel and speech bubbles are
illustrative of the latter. Unlike anchorage, relay is not much used in advertising.

Anchorage: Notice how the

image takes on two different
meanings by just changing the
caption or copy?

Believe it or not, even the most impulsive of consumers go through a structured

cognitive process before they randomly buy a piece of furniture or a dress on sale. According to
Philip Kotler (1980), there are five stages in the so called “Buyer Decision Process: 1. Needs
Arousal/ Recognition 2. Information Search 3. Evaluation Behavior 4. Purchase Decision 5. Post-
Purchase Feelings.
 Normally, a myriad of reasons can trigger the first stage, from hunger as Consumer A’s
reason to buy food to Consumer B seeing and advertisement for a luxury bag as stimuli to buy
one of his/her own (Needs Arousal). After the need is identified, both consumers will then
conduct their own research, maybe into what fast food chain to best order from or what brand
of bag is most recommended (Information Search).
From a list of many possible options, the will now trim it down to only a few, depending
on preference. Maybe for cash – strapped Consumer A, pricey meals are out of the question, so
she might settle with budget-friendly choices. While for Consumer B, name recall takes
precedence over durability/longetivity, so he migh go with a more expensive bag (Evaluation
Behavior). This then brings us to Purchase Decision.
During this stage, several factors might come into play for a consumer, seemingly with
his/her mind set already, to have a change of heart. In our example, Consumer A, after deciding
for a cheaper meal, suddenly finds out that the fast good of her choice isn’t the cleanest out
there, with flies and cockroaches aplenty. Appalled, she instead waltzed into the rival chain just
across the street, despite knowing its relatively pricier menu.
Consumer B, on the other hand, was not accommodated properly by the salesclerks in
the only store around the area that sells the bag he plan on buying. Out of curiosity, he decided
to try out one of the thrift shops lining the next block. To his surprise, he stumbled upon the
exact same bag being sold for only half the price.
For hungry Consumer A, cleanliness became the deciding factor and not the price which
earlier guided her choices. Despite shelling out more cash for a meal than what she anticipated,
she was still satisfied. As for Consumer B, he found out that the bag’s zippers are damaged
beyond repair. In the end, he was disappointed. These are Post-Purchase Feelings, Take note:
Kotler’s Buyer Decision Process, especially in the latter stages, is unstable and ever-changing,
for factors both tangible and otherwise ultimately affirm or alter the final decision.

The Calvinist Principle

 Throughout his life, the Protestant theologian John Calvin has passionately argued
against the Catholic doctrine’s espousal of asceticism. For him, it is through the consumption of
material goods that people can truly fulfill God’s desires (Van Tassel and McAharen, 1969).
But while Calvin is firmly behind the belief that consumption and wealth accumulation
are divine acts, he specified that these must only be done in moderation. To avoid the extremes
of either complete material abstinence or excess, one must play it right down the middle. He
also added that a person’s hard work justifies his/her consumption. Thus, the rich are assumed
to be the industrious lot whose wealth is willed by God. Naturally, the same logic applies to the
opposite: the poor do not work as hard, so their social status, and eventual deprivation of the
Divine beneficence (i.e.wealth), is believed to be righteously meted out.

The Marxist Perspective

The Marxist thought, however, has positioned consumer culture within the complex
entanglements of the capitalist economic model. If some academic disciplines consider
consciousness as the factor that determines society, Karl Marx suggests the opposite: it is
society that determines consciousness. More specifically; economic imperatives dictate how we
think or decide. The material life, with its modes of production, defines the process of the self;
social, political, or spiritual (Marx, 1964).
But there is irony in all these. Although the consciousness of the proletariats is heavily
decided for them by the ruling class, the latter prevents the former from developing what is
referred to as class consciousness, which is considered a means to a revolutionary end.

Commodity Fetishism
A cornerstone sway capitalist societies have over people’s material selves, at least from
Marx’s viewpoint, is what anthropology refers to as fetishism: rather primitive belief that
inanimate objects can be imbued with god-like powers. In this context, this can pertain to how
certain goods are given high monetary value with no regard for the labor that went into its
creation, thus effectively becoming but fetishized commodities stripped off their human
essence (Felluga, 2005). The danger here is that many people might then view said products as
if they harbor intrinsic value in and of themselves even without human agency.
Take for example the frenzy over the latest model of the iPhone causes people to line
up for hours outside Apple stores just to get one of their own, not in appreciation of its labor
value, but to buy into the brand’s mythology and the god-like status the company’s late
founder Steve Jobs is accorded.

Alienation
Labor in capitalist societies is often imposed and non-voluntary, hence why most
employees avoid it like the plaque when outside work premises (Marx, 1964). Under such
conditions, individuals work to afford gratifying commodities (from vacations to luxury items),
but never for its own sake. Thus, work becomes completely separate (or “alien”) from the
individual, as it contains little to no need-satisfying value. This therefore leads to worker apathy,
and eventually to alienation from one’s labor.
Because labor is devoid of its intrinsic importance to the self, the worker turns to
consumption, for it is only through it that they experience enjoyment. Capitalists are naturally
aware of this, so they double down on advertising to maintain this cyclic mindset (Pictured
above): that the purchase of things provides fleeting escape from the alienation to which they
are subjected (Berger, 2010).

Unit Summary
The material self, according to William James, is centered on the physical body, with
emphasis on one’s material possessions (i.e. clothes) and the family to which he/she belongs.
This figures in quite prominently within the broader context of consumer culture, which tells of
how the act of consumption, with mass media’s goading, is normalized in a given society.
Usually, this is done through the use of signs and symbols, and the manipulation of their
meanings. This, in turn, affects one’s identity formation, as our material possessions and
preferred lifestyles slowly become extensions of who we are. Affected as well is our behavior in
relation to consumer goods, enshrined in Philip Kotler’s Buyer Decision Process. One’s proclivity
for buying things, as theologian John Calvin explains, is but willed by God, as it is a clear-cut
manifestation of how one’s hard work can be divinely compensated in concrete form. While for
Karl Marx, consumption is momentary escape from imposed labor in a capitalist society, often
resulting in alienation.

References:

Palean et. al. (2018). Introspection: Understanfing the self. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
Batara et. al., (2018). Understanding the Self: The Journey towards a Holistic Me. Verbum Books
Otig, V.S. et., Al. (2018). A Holistic Approach in Understanding the Self: A Workbook-Textbook
for College Students.
 Specific Learning Objectives

At the end of this chapter, you should be able to:

1. Compare and contrast the concept of religion and spiritually.

2. Illustrate religiosity and spirituality in the Filipino context.
3. Distinguish the different ways by which culture and people understand Dungan, spirit or soul.
4. Appreciate the function of rituals and ceremonies.
5. Differentiate religion, magic and witchcraft.

Religion and Spirituality

People are often confused on how to describe themselves or others in terms of

religiosity and spirituality. Is a religious person a spiritual person? Is a spiritual person a
religious person? Can a person be both religious and spiritual? With these questions, it is
important for one to be familiar with the concepts or religion and spirituality, which are both
similar and different.
Defining religion is a daunting task. Although many people see religion as related to faith
in God, scholars go beyond such conceptualization. Knowing some definitions can help deepen
one’s understanding of religion.
The term religion refers to the set of religious beliefs, whereas the term religiosity is a
description of how religious an individual is. Religion comes from the Latin word religion, which
denotes a connection between man and Supreme Being. The early conceptualization of the
term is divided into two orientations, namely, intrinsic religious orientation and extrinsic
religious orientation (Allport, 1966). In intrinsic religious orientation, people perceive religion as
the source of truth. On the other hand, extrinsic religious orientation sees religion as a means
to connect with other religious individuals for purposes of social support. The quest orientation,
another religious orientation, refers to an individual’s experience of one’s search for the
meaning of one’s faith (Batson, 1976)
Religion, in its simplest sense, refers to acknowledging the power of a higher being
through rituals and other religious practices (Wulff, 1997). Thus, religion is formed through a
community with members having the same beliefs and practices towards recognizing a higher
being (Beit-Hallahmi&Argyle, 1975).
Spirituality is seen as the contemporary counterpart of religion. It sees faith to a higher
being not confined in the sacred places and group rituals, but rather experienced at a more
personal and private level (Pargament, The Psychology of Religion and Spirituality? Yes and No,
2009). Yet, one has to be careful about seeing religion and spirituality as different. Humans
through history recognize the power of a higher being, and this recognition is present in both
religion and spirituality. However, the recognition of the higher being may be experienced at a
different level in spirituality.
Spirituality is derived from the Latin word spiritulis or life. It is viewed as an experience
beyond sel-consciousness (LaPierre, 1994). Also, it refers to the connection between a person
and the nature (Spilka, 1993). Spirituality, in general, is the personal experience with the higher
being (Zinnbauer,et al.,1997).
Over the years, the religion and spirituality are conceptualized as two separate
constructs. However, they are not completely different. A religious person can be spiritual, and
vice versa. Also, a person can either be religious or spiritual. Whatever the case is, both religion
and spirituality reflect the recognition of a higher being.
Despite the arguments and misconceptions about religion and spirituality, both a
religious person and a spiritual person engage in practices that serve to recognize the higher
being. Religion is a big basin of spirituality (Hill. McCullough, Swyers, Larson, & Zinnbauer,
2000); that is, both religion and spirituality are the search for the sacred. In religion, the search
is done with others sharing the same practices. In terms of spirituality, the search is more
personal and private. If a spiritual person recognizes the power of a higher being with others
sharing the same beliefs and practices, then the recognition of a higher being is now being done
in the religious context.
The Profile of a Religious and Spiritual Filipino

Filipinos are generally religious (Abad, 2001). This can be seen in their daily activities and
interactions. The typical Filipino family and its members engage in behaviors and thoughts, and
experience feelings, related to their practice of religion. In fact, being maka-Diyos is salient in
the Filipino value system, which is expressed both in one’s self and with others (Clemente, et
al., 2008).
Opinion among many Filipinos is that youth nowadays are not religious. However, the
National Filipino Catholic Youth Study (2014) found that even though the youth do not usually
participate in church activities, such as attending Mass and praying the rosary with others, they
still pray, learn more about their faith and God, and practice their faith in a more personal level
(Catholic Bishops Conference of the Philippines – Episcopal Commission on Youth & Catholic
Educational Association of the Philippines, 2014). This suggests that the Filipino youth are still
practicing their faith in their personal space. However, they do not practice their faith in
communal activities done in public such as going to church and participating in praying of the
rosary.
What is more interesting is that Filipinos perceive religion and spirituality as similar
concepts. A Filipino considers a religious person to be spiritual, and vice versa. In an interview
of Filipinos from different religions, they view religion and spirituality as overlapping constructs
(Ocampo, Mansukhani, Mangrobang, & Juan, 2013). Finally, the association between religion
and spirituality among Filipino youth is strong (Batara, 2015). Thus, there are instances that
Filipino most likely believe that they are both religious and spiritual.

The Practice of Religion

 The practice of religion is restricted more than the belief as this will affect other people.
In may include worship, rites, rituals, sacrifices, fiestas, trances etc. There will also be dances,
meditation, celebrations, matrimonial, funeral, baptismal services or other more practices as
provided by the human culture. These acts become religious practices when they are
considered sacred by the practitioners depending on their belief. It’s not always easy to
recognize which is profane and sacred as what will be categorized as such is dependent on the
religion.
Like of example, a normal wine might be considered as profane but when used for the
Holy Communion among Catholics, then it becomes sacred. Or incense sticks may just be
decorative but when used for offering to the gods, then it becomes sacred. Most countries
would regulate religious practices and limits such pratices. However, it will also give as much
leeway as it can to those practices. Here in the Philippines, Constitutional provisions have been
written to ensure that the exercise of religious freedom will be honoured.
In the case of Ebralinag, at al vs Superintended of Schools of Cebu, a group of students
all belonging to Jehovah;s Witnesses refused to salute the flag on the ground that this is against
their religion. Some teachers repeatedly warned them but they still refused. Because of this,
they were expelled. This case was brought before the school superintendent who upheld the
decision of the principal. Hence an appeal ensued. The students were invoking their right to
exercise their religion, reasoning that the salute to the flag is seen as an idolatrous act which is
against their religion.
The issue whether school children who are members of a religious sect known as
Jehovah’s Witnesses may be expelled from school (both public and private), refusing on
account of their religious beliefs, to take part in the flag ceremony which includes playing (by a
band) or singing the Philippine national anthem, saluting the Philippine flag and receiving
patriotic pledge (G.R. No. 95770). The Philippine Supreme Court’s decision as penned by Justice
Grino-Aquino, J, decided in favour of the students.
In the Philippines, there is a conscious effort to honor the practices of the individuals for
as long as it does not violate another person’s rights. In recognition of the right, more national
holidays have been declared for the celebration of Muslim faith which has been traditionally
given to Christian faith.
Filipino religious practices is unique in such a way that families would like to ensure they
won’t miss any of the blessings all the gods would give them. Hence, you will see in some
houses, an altar, a Buddha, incense, etc. It’s a mixture of all the little things from a lot of other
religions. There is no doubt that Filipinos are deeply religious people. This is manifested in the
amount of time and money invested on religious activities such as fiesta, Christmas, Holy week,
wedding, etc. this is also shown in language like “susmaryosep” and the penchant of using
religious names for their kids. For a lot of Filipinos, most of the religious practices for them
would be assumed biblical and spiritual.

The Concept of Dungan – Spirit or Soul

The term animism is one of the oldest beliefs which is taken from the Latin word anima,
meaning breath or soul. Animism is a belief of our ancestors that everything in nature have
their own spirit or divinity, that souls are quasi-physical and can exist outside the body (in
dreams and in vision).Animate or inanimate creatures have “souls” or “life force.” (Forget your
religious belief first.) Our ancestors believed in the spirit beings in the environment, deceased
ancestral souls, and to forces in nature (wind, moon, stars) which are invoked for help. This
makes it clear that central to the tradition of our ancestors, there is that belief for “soul” that is
a “life force” and we would like to believe that the belief still persists today.The ‘soul’ or spirit
of a person is called:
Kaluluwa by the Tagalogs
Gimokud by the Bagobos
Makatu by the Bukidnons
Dungan by the Ilonggos when the person is alive; “kalag” or “detached”, “free”, when
he is dead.
Ikararuwa by the IbanagsKadkadduwa by the Ilokanos when the soul is in the physical
body; and karuruwa when it departs
 In Hinduism the atman (breath or soul) is the universal, eternal self, of which each
individual soul (jiva or jiva-atman) partakes. The jiva-atman is also eternal but is imprisoned in
an earthly body at birth and death will liberate it into a new existence as assessed by the
judgment of karma. The cycle of death and rebirth goes on and on (samsara) until such time
that the soul has attained karmic perfection, and becomes one with brahman.
Buddhism negates the concept not only of the individual self but of the atman as well,
asserting that any sense of having an individual eternal soul or of partaking in a persistent
universal self is illusory.
The Muslim also believe that the soul existed at the same time as the body but it will
survive bodily death which will then have a life of its own.
From the point of view of the “babaylan”, inside the body of a living person dwells the
dungan (a companion that co-exists). This dungan gives life, animation and sensibilities to a
person. It can temporarily leave the body at will (during sleep). It is dangerous for dungan to
leave the body when the person is awake. The body would become like a robot that runs out of
battery (Magos, 1986). One thing that we have to remember is that the western or widespread
idea of the soul is different from the indigenous concept of the soul. The soul for the latter is a
separate entity whereas as mentioned by Aguilar (1998), quoting Alicia Magos’ exposition of
the dungan – it is a life force, an energy, as well as an ethereal entity, a spirit with a will of its
own that resides in the human body and provides the essence of life. Dungan also refers to will
power, knowledge and intelligence and even the ability to influence and dominate others. It is
believed that the spirit or soul is present at birth and has chosen the body where it will reside. It
then undergoes the process of adaptation and making sure that t is perfectly knowledgeable of
the world. It also has to be ensured that it is comfortable and fixed firmly in the host’s body,
otherwise it may be led by other spirits to depart or even be held captive. If this happens, then
the host will get sick or even die. If somebody gets a sudden surprise, dungan jumps out of the
body, and when the dungan returns, then the host regains self-control. It can also leave the
body when one is asleep thus allowing oneself to see itself in a dream. The dungan has to make
sure that it will be able to return to the body and that it is safe whenever it travels.
Rituals & Ceremonies: Why do we do them?

We may have found ourselves

living in a certain pattern. We go to
class and we sit on the same chair
everytime even if there is no seating
arrangement. We wake up, brush our
teeth, have breakfast, go to school or
work, go home, watch tv and so on.
When this happens, we are engaging in
some sort of ritual. If it involves some religious symbols like praying, rites etc., then it is a
religious ritual. All religions have their own specific rituals.
Archaeologists have found presence of rituals existing since 100,000 years ago,
acknowledging also that all known communities have their rituals and practices and some form
of religion. These religious rituals continue to exist even in societies that have tried to curb the
presence of religion. Scientific rationality also has not eliminated these seemingly mad
practices. There are also some people who would claim that engaging in such acts is irrational
and that they are the product of a simple mind. Yet, amidst such challenges, these practices
don’t seem to suffer. So why do people engage in such acts that might contradict the seeming
logic of science and natural law?
According to a study done by Sosis, the main benefit of religion is the promotion of
cooperation as an effective social mechanism (Sosis, 2004).
1. The key is that religious rituals are a form of communication, which anthropologists
have long maintained. They borrowed this insight from ethologists who observed that many
species engage in patterned behavior, which they referred to as “ritual.” Ethologists recognized
that ritualistic behaviors served as a form of communication between members of the same
species, and often between members of different species. For example, the males of many
avian species engage in courtship rituals—such as bowing, head wagging, wing waving and
hopping (among many other gestures)—to signal their amorous intents before a prospective
mate. And, of course, the vibration of a rattlesnake’s tail is a powerful threat display to other
species that enter its personal space.
2. William Irons’s insight is that religious activities signal commitment to other members
of the group. By engaging in the ritual, the member effectively says, “I identify with the group
and I believe in what the group stands for.” Through its ability to signal commitment, religious
behavior can overcome the problem of free riders and promote cooperation within the group.
It does so because trust lies at the heart of the problem: A member must assure everyone that
he or she will participate in acquiring food or in defending the group. Of course, hunters and
warriors may make promises— “you have my word, I’ll show up tomorrow”—but unless the
trust is already established such statements are not believable.

Whenever a member is willing to make sacrifices to meet the high demands of a religion
the higher would be the commitment ensuring easier achievement of group goals. The more
one is committed (we can see this if they follow the adherents of the religion that may be
different from the majority), the greater would be the cooperation. More cooperation means
longer survival of religion or the commune.
According to new anthropologists, the rituals being conducted are the critical feature
that contribute to the success of religion being a cultural universal strategy and why natural
selection favors them.

Religion, Magic and Witchcraft

Most cultures of the world have religious beliefs that supernatural powers can be
compelled, or at least influenced, to act in certain ways for good or evil purposes by using ritual
formulas. These formulas are, in a sense, magic. By performing certain magical acts in a
particular way, crops might be improved, game herds replenished, illness cured or avoided,
animals and people made fertile. This is very different from television and stage "magic" that
depends on slight-of-hand tricks and contrived illusions rather than supernatural power.
For those who believe that magic is an effective method for causing supernatural actions, there
are two major ways in which this commonly believed to occur--sympathy and contagion.
Sympathetic magic is based on the principle that "like produces like." For instance, whatever
happens to an image of someone will also happen to them. This is the basis for use of Voodoo
dolls in the folk tradition of Haiti. If someone sticks a pin into the stomach of the doll, the
person of whom it is a likeness will be expected to experience a simultaneous pain in his or her
stomach. Sympathetic magic is also referred to as imitative magic. Contagious magic is based
on the principle that things or persons once in contact can afterward influence each other. In
other words, it is believed that there is a permanent relationship between an individual and any
part of his or her body. As a consequence, believers must take special precautions with their
hair, fingernails, teeth, clothes, and feces. If anyone obtained these objects, magic could be
performed on them which would cause the person they came from to be affected. For
instance, someone could use your fingernail clippings in a magical ritual that would cause you
to love them or to fall ill and die.
In a belief system that uses magic as the most logical explanation for illness, accidents,
and other unexpected occurrences, there is no room for natural causes or chance. Witchcraft
provides the explanation--it can be the cause for most effects. Since it can be practiced in
secret, the existence of witchcraft cannot be easily refuted with arguments. Believers are not
dissuaded by pointing out that there is no evidence that any witchcraft was used against them.
For example, you may wake up in the middle of the night and go to get a drink of water. On the
way, you trip over a chair in the dark, which causes you to break your leg. You may be
convinced that it was an accident. However, if you believe in witchcraft, you will ask why this
accident happened to you and why now. Magic practiced in secret by someone who wants to
harm you is the answer. The only reasonable questions are who performed the magic and why.

The answers to these questions come through divination which is a magical procedure by
which the cause of a particular event or the future is determined. Once the guilty person is
discovered, retribution may be gained by public exposure and punishment or by counter
witchcraft.
Divination is accomplished by many different methods around the world. Shamans
usually go into a trance to find out the answers from their spirit helpers. The ancient Romans
divined the outcome of battles or business deals by autopsying chickens and examining the
condition of their livers. Divination is still popular with many people in the United States today.
There are individuals who set up business to divine the future for their clients by examining
such things as tea leaves in the bottom of a cup, lines in the hand, and tarot cards.
In societies in which magic and witchcraft are accepted as realities, mental illness is usually
explained as being a consequence of witchcraft or the actions of supernatural beings and
forces. In Nigeria, folk curers are licensed by the government to use supernatural means and
herbal remedies to cure people who are suffering from mental illness. Nigeria also licenses
doctors trained in Western medicine, which totally rejects the idea of illness being caused by
magic or other supernatural causes. However, the Western trained doctors and the folk curers
in Nigeria often work cooperatively and send each other patients that they cannot cure with
their own approaches.
When witchcraft is a widespread belief in a society, it may be used as a means of social
control. Anti-social or otherwise deviant behavior often results in an individual being labeled as
a witch in such societies. Since witches are feared and often ostracized or even killed when
discovered, the mere threat of being accused of witchcraft can be sufficient to force people into
modal behavior.

Finding and Creating Meaning. Why should I continue to live? What can I give life? Three
Ways of Discovering the Meaning of Life.
 Viktor Frankl is the founder of logotherapy,
a form of psychotherapy that he developed after
surviving Nazi concentration camps in the 1940s.
After his experience in the camps, he developed a
theory that it is through a search for meaning and
purpose in life that individuals can endure hardship
and suffering.
Viktor Frankl was born March 26, 1905, and
died September 2, 1997, in Vienna, Austria. He was
influenced during his early life by Sigmund Freud
and Alfred Adler. Frankl earned a medical degree
from the University of Vienna Medical School in 1930.
From 1940 to 1942, he was the director of the Neurological Department of the
Rothschild Hospital, and from 1946 to 1970 was the director of the Vienna Polyclinic of
Neurology. In 1942, Frankl was deported to a Nazi concentration camp along with his wife,
parents, and other family members.
He spent time in four camps in total, including Auschwitz, from 1942 to 1945, and was
the only member of his family to survive. In 1945, he returned to Vienna and published a book
on his theories, based on his records of observations during his time in the camps. By the time
of his death, his book, Man's Search for Meaning, had been published in 24 languages.
During his career as a professor of neurology and psychiatry, Frankl wrote 30 books,
lectured at 209 universities on five continents, and was the recipient of 29 honorary doctorates
from universities around the world. He was a visiting professor at Harvard and Stanford, and his
therapy, named "logotherapy," was recognized as the third school of Viennese therapy after
Freud's psychoanalysis and Alfred Adler's individual psychology. In addition, logotherapy was
recognized as one of the scientifically-based schools of psychotherapy by the American Medical
Society, American Psychiatric Association, and the American Psychological Association.
Logotherapy

Frankl believed that humans are motivated by

something called a "will to meaning," which equates to a
desire to find meaning in life. He argued that life can have
meaning even in the most miserable of circumstances and
that the motivation for living comes from finding that
meaning. Taking it a step further, Frankl wrote:
Everything can be taken from a man but
one thing: the last of the human freedoms—to
choose one's attitude in any given set of
circumstances.

This opinion was based on his experiences of

suffering and his attitude of finding meaning through suffering. In this way, Frankl believed that
when we can no longer change a situation, we are forced to change ourselves.
 "Logos" is the Greek word for meaning, and logotherapy involves helping a patient find
personal meaning in life. Frankl provided a brief overview of the theory in Man's Search for
Meaning.

Frankl believed in three core properties on which his theory and therapy were based:
1. Each person has a healthy core.
2. One's primary focus is to enlighten others to their own internal resources and provide
the tools to use their inner core.
3. Life offers purpose and meaning but does not promise fulfillment or happiness.

Going a step further, logotherapy proposes that meaning in life can be discovered in three
distinct ways:
1. By creating a work or doing a deed.
2. By experiencing something or encountering someone.
3. By the attitude that we take toward unavoidable suffering.

Logotherapy consists of six basic assumptions that overlap with the fundamental constructs
and ways of seeking meaning listed above:
1. Body, Mind, and Spirit
The human being is an entity that consists of a body (soma), mind (psyche), and spirit (noos).
Frankl argued that we have a body and mind, but the spirit is what we are, or our essence. Note
that Frankl's theory was not based on religion or theology, but often had parallels to these.
2. Life Has Meaning in All Circumstances
Frankl believed that life has meaning in all circumstances, even the most miserable ones. This
means that even when situations seem objectively terrible, there is a higher level of order that
involves meaning.
3. Humans Have a Will to Meaning
Logotherapy proposes that humans have a will to meaning, which means that meaning is our
primary motivation for living and acting and allows us to endure pain and suffering. This is
viewed as differing from the will to achieve power and pleasure.
4. Freedom to Find Meaning
Frankl argues that in all circumstances, individuals have the freedom to access that will to find
meaning. This is based on his experiences of pain and suffering and choosing his attitude in a
situation that he could not change.
5. Meaning of the Moment
The fifth assumption argues that for decisions to be meaningful, individuals must respond to
the demands of daily life in ways that match the values of society or their own conscience.
6. Individuals Are Unique
Frankl believed that every individual is unique and irreplaceable.

Logotherapy in Practice
Frankl believed that it was possible to turn suffering into achievement and
accomplishment. He viewed guilt as an opportunity to change oneself for the better, and life
transitions as the chance to take responsible action.
In this way, this psychotherapy was aimed at helping people to make better use of their
"spiritual" resources to withstand adversity. In his books, he often used his own personal
experiences to explain concepts to the reader.
Three techniques used in logotherapy include dereflection, paradoxical intention, and
Socratic dialogue.
1. Dereflection: Dereflection is aimed at helping someone focus away from themselves
and toward other people so that they can become whole and spend less time being self-
absorbed about a problem or how to reach a goal.
 2. Paradoxical intention: Paradoxical intention is a technique that has the person wish for
the thing that is feared most. This was suggested for use in the case of anxiety or
phobias, in which humor and ridicule can be used when fear is paralyzing. For example,
a person with a fear of looking foolish might be encouraged to try to look foolish on
purpose. Paradoxically, the fear would be removed when the intention involved the
thing that was feared most.
3. Socratic dialogue: Socratic dialogue would be used in logotherapy as a tool to help a
patient through the process of self-discovery through his or her own words. In this way,
the therapist would point out patterns of words and help the client to see the meaning
in them. This process is believed to help the client realize an answer that is waiting to be
discovered.

Overall, not surprisingly, there is evidence that meaning in life correlates with better mental
health. It is suggested that this knowledge might be applied in areas such as phobias, pain and
guilt, grief, as well as for disorders such as schizophrenia, depression, substance abuse, post-
traumatic stress, and anxiety.
Frankl believed that many illnesses or mental health issues are disguised existential angst and
that people struggle with lack of meaning, which he referred to as the "existential vacuum."
Everyday Life
How might you apply the principles of logotherapy to improve your everyday life?
 Create something. Just as Frankl suggested, creating something (e.g., art) gives you a
sense of purpose, which can add meaning to your life.
 Develop relationships. The supportive nature of spending time with others will help you
to develop more of a sense of meaning in your life.
 Find purpose in pain. If you are going through something bad, try to find a purpose in it.
Even if this is a bit of mental trickery, it will help to see you through. For example, if a
family member is going through medical treatments for a disease, view your purpose as
being there to support that person.
  Understand that life is not fair. There is nobody keeping score, and you will not
necessarily be dealt a fair deck. However, life can always have meaning, even in the
worst of situations.
 Freedom to find meaning. Remember that you are always free to make meaning out of
your life situation. Nobody can take that away from you.
 Focus on others. Try to focus outside of yourself to get through feeling stuck about a
situation.
 Accept the worst. When you go out seeking the worse, it reduces the power that it has
over you.

Unit Summary

The belief in supernatural beings may be one of the oldest beliefs man has ever had.
When people encounter events in their lives, especially misfortune, people turn to different
ways to seek explanation of what is going on around them. It is often in the realm of
supernatural that people turn to. The definition of one’s spirituality is very much attuned to
our belief system. It can be religion, magic or witchcraft. However, in all these, we turn to
them as art of our survival. The way we define ourselves shape the choices we make. It is
through this that Frankl emphasizes, we should not ask what us the meaning of life, but
rather understand that it is life that is asking us- what is the meaning we give to life?

References:

Palean et. al. (2018). Introspection: Understanfing the self. Books Atbp. Publishing Corp.
https://learning.hccs.edu/faculty/scotty.moore/anth2351/anth-2301-summer-readings/the-
adaptive-value-of-religion
https://www2.palomar.edu/anthro/religion/rel_5.htm
https://kokiseki.files.wordpress.com/2010/09/2-6.pdf
http://www.logotherapyinstitute.org/About_Logotherapy.html
https://www.verywellmind.com/an-overview-of-victor-frankl-s-logotherapy-4159308
https://www.coursehero.com/file/45405082/GNED08-Lesson9-Spiritual-Selfdocx/#:~:text=THE
%20CONCEPT%20OF%20%E2%80%9CDUNGAN%E2%80%9D%20(,anima%20%2C
%20meaning%20breath%20or%20soul.
https://www.penguinrandomhouse.com/books/220072/your-life-without-limits-by-nick-vujicic/
Batara et. al., (2018). Understanding the Self: The Journey towards a Holistic Me. Verbum Books
Otig, V.S. et., Al. (2018). A Holistic Approach in Understanding the Self: A Workbook-Textbook
for College Students.

MODULE 2
Lesson 5: The Political Self

LESSON NO. 5
LESSON TITLE POLITICAL SELF
DURATION/HOURS
Specific Learning During the students' learning engagements, they will be able to:
Outcomes:
 LO 1 describe the nature, functions, and origins of political self;
 LO 2 explain the role of family, school, church and peer groups, and media in
the development of political self;
 LO 3 determine the importance of social interaction in developing the political
self; and
 LO 4 relate personal experience in line with the theoretical perspectives in the
development of political self

Go-Monilla, M., Ramirez, N. (2018). Understanding the Self. 839 EDSA, South
RESOURCES: Triangle, Quezon City: C & E Publising.

Cherry, K. (2019). How Social Learning Theory Works. VeryWell Mind. Retrieved
from

https://www.verywellmind.com/social-learning-theory-2795074. Retrieved
on 23 July 2020.
Cognitive Theory: Introduction to Cognitive Theory. AllPsych Psych Central’s
Virtual Psychology Classroom. Retrieved from
https://allpsych.com/personality-theory/cognitive/. Retrieved on 23 July
2020.
Dr. Cole, N. (2019). Symbolic Interaction: History, Development and Examples.
ThoughtCo. Retrieved from https://www.thoughtco.com/symbolic-
interaction-theory-p2-3026645. Retrieved on 23 July 2020.
 MODULE 2

Lesson 6: Digital Self

LESSON TITLE Digital Self
DURATION/ 3 hours
HOURS
Specific Learning During the student’s learning engagements, they will able to:
Outcomes:  Assess your digital self-using an online identity checklist;
 Distinguish what types of information can be shared or not on
social media and;
 Make a slogan or poster about becoming a responsible internet
user.

RESOURCES Alata E.J (2018) Understanding the self,856 Nicanor Reyes, Sr. Street
Recto Avenue Manila Philippines: Rex Bookstore.

Macayan, (c2018) Understanding the self, C&E Publishing, Inc

https://www.evonomie.net/2018/07/03/digital-self/your-digital-self-
how-to-present-yourself-online/
Introduction