**Statistics**: The science of collecting, organizing, analyzing, and interpreting
data to make decisions. _Example_: Analyzing student test scores to understand
class performance.
**Descriptive Statistics**: Summarizes and presents data in a meaningful form such
as tables, charts, or averages. _Example_: Mean score of a class test.
**Inferential Statistics**: Uses a sample to draw conclusions or make predictions
about a population. _Example_: Predicting election results based on a survey.
**Population**: The entire group that you want to study or collect data about.
_Example_: All university students in Afghanistan.
**Sample**: A part of the population used to represent the whole. _Example_: 100
students selected from all universities in Kabul.
**Variable**: A characteristic or attribute that can take different values.
_Example_: Height of students.
**Discrete Variable**: Takes countable values. _Example_: Number of cars a person
owns.
**Continuous Variable**: Takes infinite values within a range. _Example_:
Temperature or height.
**Mean (Arithmetic)**: Sum of all values divided by the number of values.
_Example_: Mean of 10, 20, 30 is (10+20+30)/3 = 20.
**Median**: The middle value when data is ordered. _Example_: In 10, 20, 30 the
median is 20.
**Mode**: The value that appears most frequently in a data set. _Example_: In 2, 3,
3, 5, mode is 3.
**Range**: Difference between the highest and lowest values. _Example_: Range of 5,
10, 15 is 15 - 5 = 10.
**Variance**: Average of squared differences from the mean. _Example_: Used to
measure spread in data.
**Standard Deviation**: Square root of variance, showing spread of data. _Example_:
Smaller SD means data is close to mean.
**Coefficient of Variation (CV)**: Standard deviation divided by mean, expressed in
percentage. _Example_: Useful to compare variability between datasets.
**Index Number**: A statistical measure to show changes in a variable over time.
_Example_: Consumer Price Index (CPI).
**Simple Index Number**: Measures relative change in one variable compared to base
year. _Example_: Index = (Current/Base) × 100
**Composite Index Number**: Measures average relative change in a group of items.
_Example_: Average price index of goods.
**Probability**: The chance that an event will occur. _Example_: Probability of
getting heads in a coin toss is 0.5.
**Conditional Probability**: Probability of an event given that another event has
occurred. _Example_: Chance it rains given it's cloudy.
**Independent Events**: Events that do not affect each other. _Example_: Tossing
two coins.
**Bayes’ Theorem**: Used to revise probabilities with new information. _Example_:
Finding the chance of having a disease given a positive test.
**Random Variable**: A variable whose value depends on the outcome of a random
event. _Example_: Number of heads in 3 coin tosses.
**Discrete Random Variable**: Takes countable values like 0, 1, 2,... _Example_:
Number of defective items in a batch.
**Continuous Random Variable**: Takes uncountably many values in a range.
_Example_: Height of people in a population.
**Probability Distribution**: A function that gives the probabilities of different
outcomes. _Example_: Probability of rolling each number on a die.
**Normal Distribution**: A bell-shaped distribution where mean = median = mode.
_Example_: Distribution of people's IQ scores.
**Z-Score**: Tells how many standard deviations a value is from the mean.
_Example_: Z = (X - μ)/σ
**Joint Distribution**: Probability distribution involving two variables together.
_Example_: Probability of height and weight combinations.
**Marginal Distribution**: Distribution of one variable ignoring the other.
_Example_: Probability of different heights regardless of weight.
