Endocrine System

1. Exocrine Glands: Secrete fluids into small ducts.

Ex: Salivary Glands, Lacrimal Glands, Mammary Glands, Sweat Glands, Sebaceous
Glands, Liver, Pancreas.

2. Endocrine Glands: also called as Ductless Glands. Endocrine glands secrete hormones
directly into blood.
Ex: thyroid gland, parathyroid glands, adrenal glands, pancreas, pituitary glands,
ovaries in female, testes in male, pineal gland.

• Pineal Gland: located in the brain. secretes melatonin – to induce sleep. It

maintains biological clock (sleep-awake cycle).
• Kidney – erythropoietin
• Placenta – human chorionic gonadotropin
• Gallbladder – cholecystokinin.
• Prostaglandins are produced by almost all Nucleated Cells.
Functions:
o Stimulate the contraction of the uterus.
o Regulate body temperature, platelet aggregation, and acid secretion in the
stomach.
o The ability to lower blood pressure.

• Thyroid Gland: located on either side of trachea.

o It is divided into right lobe and left lobe.
o These 2 lobes are connected by isthmus.
o Hormones secreted by thyroid gland are T3 (triiodothyronine), T4
(tetraiodothyronine/thyroxine), and calcitonin.
o Function of T3 and T4 – increase metabolism rate.
o Function of Calcitonin – transfers excess amount of calcium into bones
(decrease blood calcium level).

• Parathyroid Glands: are 4 small oval bodies located on the dorsal aspect of the
thyroid gland.
o Secretes Parathyroid Hormone (PTH).
o This hormone is also called as parathormone.

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 o Function – when there is low amounts of blood calcium, PTH hormone
transfers calcium from bones to blood (increases blood calcium levels).

• Adrenal Glands: 2 small glands, one on top of each kidney.

o Each gland consists of 2 parts: outer portion called as adrenal cortex and an
inner portion called as adrenal medulla.
o Hormones secreted in the Adrenal Cortex called as Corticosteroids.
o These are 3 types.
 Glucocorticoids (Cortisol) –
▪ it will increase blood glucose levels.
 Mineralocorticoids (Aldosterone) –
▪ It regulates concentration of mineral salts (electrolytes) in the
body.
▪ Reabsorption of sodium and water, increase sodium levels in
blood.
▪ It regulates blood volume and blood pressure.
 Sex Hormones – Androgens (Testosterone) and Estrogens.

o Hormones secreted in Adrenal Medulla called Catecholamines.

o These are 2 types.
▪ Epinephrine (Adrenaline) – increases heart rate and blood pressure,
dilates bronchial tubes, and releases glucose from glycogen when the
body needs it for more energy.
▪ Norepinephrine (Noradrenaline) – constricts blood vessels to raise
blood pressure.
▪ Both epinephrine and norepinephrine are sympathomimetic agents
(fight or flight hormones).

Pancreas: located in the left upper quadrant behind the stomach.

• It works as both endocrine gland and exocrine gland.

• It consists of 3 parts; head, body, and tail.
• The endocrine tissue of the pancreas consists of specialized hormone-producing
cells called Islets of Langerhans or Islet cells.
• Beta cells produce Insulin which will convert glucose into glycogen (stores in the
liver) i.e., lowers the blood sugar levels.
• Alpha cells produce Glucagon which transfers glucose from liver to blood, i.e.,
increases blood sugar levels.

• As an Exocrine Gland pancreas will secrete pancreatic juice via pancreatic duct.

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Thymus Gland: located behind the sternum.

• It secretes hormone called as thymosin.

Function of Thymosin:
o It develops immune response in new born and infants.
o Thymus is also a lymphoid organ, produces T lymphocytes.

Testes: 2 small ovoid glands suspended from the inguinal region of the male by the
spermatic cord and surrounded by the scrotal sac.

• It produces hormone called Testosterone.

• Function – development of sperm and secondary sexual characteristics in males.

Ovaries: 2 small glands located in the lower abdominal region of the female.

• The ovaries produce hormone called as Estrogen and Progesterone.

• Function of Estrogen: promotes development of ova and female secondary sex
characteristics.
• Function of Progesterone: prepares and maintains the uterus in pregnancy.

Pituitary Gland:

• Also called as hypophysis.

• It is located at the base of the brain in a small pocket-like depression of the skull
called sella turcica.
• Also called as “Master gland” because it controls and stimulates other endocrine
glands.
• It consists of 2 distinct parts: Anterior Lobe or Adenohypohysis and Posterior
Lobe or Neurohypophysis.
Major hormones of Anterior Pituitary Gland are:
o Growth Hormone (GH) Or Somatotropin (STH): stimulates growth of bones,
muscles, and other tissues.
o Thyroid Stimulating Hormone (TSH) Or Thyrotropin: stimulates growth of
thyroid gland and secretion of T4 and T3.
o Adrenocorticotropic Hormone (ACTH): stimulates the growth of adrenal
hormones.
o Prolactin (PRL): stimulates breast development during pregnancy and milk
production after birth.

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 o Melanocytic Stimulating Hormone (MSH): stimulates melanocytes to produce
melanin.
o Gonadotropic Hormones:
 In the female, Follicle-Stimulating Hormone (FSH) and Luteinizing
Hormone (LH) stimulate the growth of eggs in the ovaries, the
production of hormones, and ovulation.
 In the male, FSH influences the production of sperm and LH stimulates
the testes to produce testosterone.

Posterior Pituitary Gland stores and released 2 important hormones that are
synthesized in hypothalamus:
o Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): also called as vasopressin. Stimulates
reabsorption of water by kidney tubules and increases BP by constricting
arterioles.
o Oxytocin (OT): stimulates uterus contractions during labor and child birth.

Pathology
Thyroid Gland:
1. Hyperthyroidism:
o Overactivity of thyroid gland. Ex: Graves disease.
o Exophthalmos – protrusion of eye balls or proptosis.
2. Hypothyroidism:
o Underactivity of thyroid gland. Ex: Myxedema (advanced hypothyroidism in
adulthood) and Cretinism (extreme hypothyroidism in infants and childhood)
leads to a lack of normal physical and mental growth.

3. Thyroid Carcinoma:
o Cancer of thyroid gland.

Parathyroid Glands
o Hyperparathyroidism: excessive production of parathormone.
o Hypoparathyroidism: deficient production of parathormone.

Adrenal Cortex:
• Adrenal Virilism: excessive secretion of adrenal androgens.

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• Cushing Syndrome: group of signs and symptoms produced by excess cortisol from
the adrenal cortex.
• Addison Disease: Hypo-functioning of the adrenal cortex.

 Adrenal virilism and Cushing syndrome are hypersecretion and Addison disease is
a hyposecretion.

Adrenal Medulla:
• Hypersecretion
• Pheochromocytoma: benign tumor of the adrenal medulla. Tumor cells stain a
dark or dusky color.
• The tumor is made of a certain type of cell called chromaffin cell, which produce
and release the hormones that cause the fight or flight response.

Pancreas
• Hyperinsulinism: excess secretion of insulin causing hypoglycemia.
• Diabetes mellitus (DM): lack of insulin secretion or resistance of insulin in promoting
sugar, starch, and fat metabolism in cells.
Type 1
o Usually occurs before age 30.
o Abrupt, rapid onset of symptom.
o Little or no insulin production.
o Thin or normal body weight at onset.
o Ketoacidosis often occurs.
o Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia occurs.
o Insulin treatment.

Type 2
o Usually occurs after age 30
o Gradual onset, asymptomatic.
o Insulin usually present.
o 85% are obese.
o Ketoacidosis rarely occurs.
o Polyuria, polydipsia, polyphagia sometimes seen.
o Treatment: diet (weight loss); oral hypoglycemics or insulin.

• Type 1 called as juvenile-onset diabetes (or) insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus

[IDDM].

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 • Type 2 called as adult-onset diabetes (or) non- insulin-dependent diabetes
mellitus[NIDDM].

Pituitary Gland
Anterior Lobe

• Acromegaly: hypersecretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary after

puberty, leading to enlargement of extremities.
• Gigantism: hypersecretion of growth hormone from the anterior pituitary before
puberty, leading to abnormal growth of body tissues.
• Dwarfism: congenital hyposecretion of growth hormone; hypopituitary dwarfism.
• Panhypopituitarism: deficiency of all pituitary hormones.
Posterior Lobe

• Syndrome of inappropriate ADH (SIADH): excessive secretion of antidiuretic

hormone.
• Diabetes Insipidus: insufficient secretion of antidiuretic hormone (vasopressin).

Laboratory Tests
• Fasting plasma glucose (FPG): also known as fasting blood sugar test. Measures
circulating glucose level in a patient who has fasted at least 8 hours.
• Serum and urine tests: measurement of hormones, electrolytes, glucose and other
substances in serum (blood) and urine as indicators of endocrine function.
• Thyroid function tests: measurement of T3, T4, and TSH in bloodstream.

Clinical Procedures:
• Exophthalmometry: measurement of eyeball protrusion (as in Graves disease) with an
exophthalmometer.
• CT scan: X-ray imaging of endocrine glands in cross section and other views, to assess
size and infiltration by tumor.
• MRI: Magnetic waves produce images of the hypothalamus and pituitary gland to
locate abnormalities.
• Thyroid scan: Scanner detects radioactivity and visualizes the thyroid gland.
• RAIU – radioactive iodine uptake scan.
• Ultrasound Examination: Sound waves show images of endocrine organs.

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Abbreviations
MDI – multiple daily injection.
OT, OXT – oxytocin.
RIA – radioimmunoassay
RAI – radioactive iodine
SMBG – self-monitoring of blood glucose
DKA – diabetic ketoacidosis
CGMS – continuous glucose monitoring system
FBG – fasting blood glucose
FBS – fasting blood sugar
GTT – glucose tolerance test

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