MODULE - 4

COMBUSTION IN IC ENGINES:
Analysis of fuel combustion
All fuels contain carbon, hydrogen and sulphur. These constituents will readily combine with oxygen
and release heat while combusting. Therefore, the sufficient air is required to make complete
combustion of fuels. If the supplied air is insufficient, still some amount of heat will be present in the
burnt fuel which is indicated by the presence of CO. If any flue gas contains only CO2 after
combustion, it will refer the indication of complete combustion. Otherwise, the same combustion
process is said to be incomplete combustion which is identified by the presence of both CO2 and CO.

C + O2 = CO2 - (1) Complete combustion equation

2C + O2 = 2CO - (2) Incomplete combustion equation

4C + 3O2 = 2CO₂ + 2CO - (3) Incomplete combustion equation

Calculations of O₂ requirement for both complete and incomplete combustion are as follows:

Molecular weight of carbon = 12

Molecular weight of oxygen = 16

From equation (1), we can write

12 kg of C + (2×16) kg of O 2 = (12+2×16) kg of CO₂

So, 1 kg of C + 32/12 kg of O2 = 44/12 kg of CO2

1 kg of C + 8/3 kg of O2 = 11/3 kg of CO₂ (4)

Therefore, 1 kg of carbon requires 8/3 kg of O₂ to produce 11/3 kg of CO2

From equation (2), we can write

(2×12) kg of C + (2×16) kg of O₂ = (2(12+16)) kg of CO

So, 1 kg of C + 32/24 kg of O2 = 56/24 kg of CO

1 kg of C + 4/3 kg of O2 = 7/3 kg of CO (5)

Therefore, 1 kg of carbon requires 4/3 kg of O2 to produce 7/3 kg of CO

From equation (3), it can be written as

(4×12) kg of C + (3×2×16) kg of O₂ = 2(12+2×16) kg of CO₂ + 2(12+16) kg of CO

48 kg of C + 96 kg of O2 = 88 kg of CO2 + 56 kg of CO

So, 1 kg of C + 96/48 kg of O2 = 88/48 kg of CO₂ + 56/48 kg of CO

1 kg of C + 2 kg of O₂ = 11/6 kg of CO₂ + 7/6 kg of CO (6)

Therefore, 1 kg of carbon requires 2 kg of O₂ to produce 11/6 kg of CO2 and 7/6 kg of CO

Similarly, 2H2 + O2 = 2H₂Ο

Molecular weight of hydrogen = 1

(4×1) kg of H₂ + (2×16) kg of O₂ = 2(2×1+16) kg of H₂O

4 kg of H₂+ 32 kg of O₂ = 36 kg of H₂O

So, 1 kg of H₂ + 8 kg of O2 = 9 kg of H₂O (7)

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Therefore, 1 kg of hydrogen requires 8 kg of O₂ to produce 9 kg of H₂O

Similarly, S+O2 = SO2

Molecular weight of sulphur = 32

So, 32 kg of S + (2×16) kg of O₂= (32+2×16) kg of SO2

32 kg of S + 32 kg of O₂ = 64 kg of SO2

1 kg of S + 1 kg of O₂ = 2 kg of SO2 (8)

Therefore, 1 kg of sulphur requires 1 kg of O₂ to produce 2 kg of SO2

The above equations (4), (5), (6), (7) and (8) are mainly used in combustion process.

Generalised Combustion Equation for any Hydrocarbon Fuel

Any hydrocarbon fuel can be represented by CnH2n+2 or CaHb. So, we can write the combustion
reaction

CaHb + (3a + 1)/2 O2 = aCO2 + b/2 H2O

Example:

For complete combustion of ethane fuel, the combustion equation becomes,

C2H6 + (3x2+1)/2 O2=2CO2 + 6/2 H2O

C2H6 + 7/2 O2 = 2CO2 + 3H2O

For methane fuel, the combustion reaction becomes,

CH4 + (3x1+1)/2 O2 = CO2 + 4/2 H2O

CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O

For propane fuel, the combustion reaction becomes,

C3H8 + (3x3+1)/2 O2 = 3CO2+ 8/2 H₂O

C2H8 + 5O2 = 3CO2 + 4H2O

Stochiometric Air-Fuel Ratio or Minimum Quantity of Air

The amount of air required to burn 1 kg of fuel for making complete combustion is known as air-fuel
ratio. It is also known as stochiometric or theoretical air-fuel ratio or minimum quantity of air.

Stochiometric air-fuel ratio = Amount of air required for complete combustion / Amount of fuel used

Actual Air-Fuel Ratio and Excess Air

Practically, the air required to make complete combustion of fuel is slightly more than the theoretical
air. So, the excess air is supplied to obtain complete combustion. Therefore, the actual air-fuel ratio is
slightly higher than the theoretical air-fuel ratio (Stochiometric A/F ratio). Then, the percentage excess
air can be calculated as

Percentage of excess air = (Actual A/F ratio - Stochiometric A/F ratio) / Stochiometric A/F ratio

Conversion of volumetric analysis to mass analysis is done by multiplying its molecular weight

Mass analysis = Volumetric analysis × Molecular weight

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Equivalence Ratio
Equivalence ratio is defined as the ratio of actual air fuel ratio and stochiometric air fuel ratio.

Equivalence ratio = Actual A/F ratio / Stochiometric A/F ratio

Flue Gas Analysis

Exhaust gas is generated through combustion processes called flue gas or stack gas. Its composition
depends on the type of fuel and the combustion conditions. Flue gas analysis is used both for
efficiency and emissions purposes.

The combustion process inputs are fuel and air. Therefore, the components of flue gas are primarily
made up of compounds of oxygen, nitrogen, hydrogen and carbon. The components are primarily
oxygen (O) and carbon (C). The components are nitrous-oxides (NOx), carbon- dioxide (CO2),
carbon-monoxide (CO) and sulfur-dioxide (SO₂) if the fuel source is oil or coal. The Orsat is the
instrument to carry out flue gas analysis. An Orsat gas analyser is used to analyse a gas sample for
its oxygen, carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide content.

COMBUSTION PHENOMENA IN SI ENGINES

In a Sl engine, a sufficient homogeneous mixture of vapourised fuel and air is sucked into the cylinder
where it mixes with residual gas and then compressed. Under the normal condition, combustion is
initiated towards the end of the compression stroke at the spark plug by an electric discharge. The
temperature of the combustible mixture surrounding the spark is raised to a sufficient temperature
level to start the combustion. The heat liberated by burning portion 'flame front' prepares the adjacent
portion of the unburned charge for the combustion reaction. The rate at which the flame front travels is
dependent primarily on the degree of turbulence.

Ignition limits
Ignition of charge is only possible within certain limits of fuel-air ratio. Ignition limits correspond
approximately to those mixture ratios, at lean and rich ends of scale, where heat released by spark is
no longer sufficient to initiate combustion in neighbouring unburnt mixture. For hydrocarbons fuel the
stoichiometric fuel air ratio is 1:15 and hence the fuel air ratio must be about 1:30 and 1:7

Ignition lag" or "Ignition delay" or "Delay period

In the actual engine cylinder, there is a certain time interval between the instant of spark and the
instant of pressure rise due to combustion. This time interval or time lay is known as "Ignition lag" or
"Ignition delay" or "Delay period".

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Figure shows a typical theoretical pressure - crank angle diagram, during the process of compression
(i.e. a to b), combustion (b to c) and expansion (c to d) in an ideal four stroke SI engine. This is really
an unfolded p-θ diagram.

In an ideal engine, the entire pressure rise during combustion takes place at constant value i.e., at
TDC. But in actual engine this does not happen. The detailed process of combustion in an actual SI
engine is described below.

STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN SI ENGINES

According to Sir Ricardo, the combustion process in SI engine can be divided into three broad
regions. (i) Ignition delay (ii) Flame propagation and (iii) After burning.

(i) Ignition lag or Ignition delay (AB):

In Figure, Point A refers to the ignition of spark between spark plug electrodes. But the burning of fuel-
air mixture commences only at the point B. The time interval between the points 'A' and 'B' is known
as "Ignition lag". It is also called as preparation phase.

During this period, a self-propagating nucleus called "Flame Kernal" is developed within the
electrodes. This is a chemical process depending upon both temperature and pressure, the nature of
the fuel and the proportion of the exhaust residual gas. Ignition lag is the time interval between the
application of spark and point at which the beginning of pressure rise can be detected.

This interval must be minimized by taking

following measures:

Decreased self-ignition temperature

Increased compression ratio

Increased inlet pressure and temperature

Equivalence ratio (near stoichiometric)

Reduced turbulence

Increased density of mixture near electrodes.

(ii) Flame propagation stage (BC)

This stage concentrates on the spread of the flame throughout the combustion chamber. The starting
point of the second stage (point B) is where the first measurable rise of pressure is seen on the
indicator diagram. During this stage the flame propagation practically at a constant velocity. The rate
of heat release depends upon the turbulence intensity and reaction rate. The rate of pressure rise is
proportional to the rate of heat release. This stage is completed when maximum pressure is reached.
This stage must be enhanced.

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Flame propagation can be increased by following means:

Increasing engine speed, Increasing compression ratio, Increasing inlet conditions, Equivalence ratio
(near stoichiometric), Increasing turbulence, Having compact engine size, Providing spark plug
location near the centre,

(iii) After burning stage:

This stage starts at which the maximum pressure reaches on the indicator diagram (point C). The
flame velocity decreases during this stage. The rate of combustion becomes low due to lower flame
velocity and reduced flame front surface. The combustion of fuel is not completed at 'C' and the fuel
may burn after the point 'C' during the expansion stroke. The burning of fuel after the maximum
pressure is known as “After burning”.

KNOCKING AND DETONATION IN SI ENGINES

If the temperature of an air-fuel mixture is raised high enough, the mixture will self- ignite without the
need of a spark plug. This phenomenon is called as self-ignition or Auto- ignition. The temperature
above which self-ignition occurs called the self-ignition temperature.

If the temperature of the unburnt mixture exceeds the self-ignition temperature during the ignition
delay period, auto-ignition occurs at various locations in the cylinder. This will generate pressure
pulses. These high-pressure pulses can cause damage to the engine and quite often are in the
audible frequency range. This phenomenon is often called knocking or detonation.

In normal combustion, a normal flame front travels across the combustion chamber from A towards D.
The advancing flame front compresses the unburned charge BB'D, thus raising its temperature. The
temperature is also increased by radiation

from the hot advancing flame-front. If this unburnt change does not reach its self-ignition temperature,
it will not auto-ignite and the flame front BB' will move further and consume the charge BB'D. The P -
diagram for normal combustion is a smooth curve. In the abnormal combustion called knocking or
detonation, the end charge auto-ignites before the flame front reaches it.

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When the flame has reached the position BB', the charge ahead of it has reached self-ignition
temperature. During the ignition delay period if the flame front could move from BB' to only CC' then
the unburnt change ahead of CC' would auto ignite. This auto ignition results in traveling of another
flame front in the opposite direction to the main flame front. When two flame front collide, a server
pressure pulse is generated. This pressure wave strikes the cylinder wall and set it vibrating, giving
rise to a high pitched metallic 'pinking' or ringing sound. This phenomenon is therefore known as
'knocking'.

Knocking in SI engine always occurs near the end of combustion whereas in CI engine it occurs in the
beginning of combustion.

The term detonation is used to indicate specifically the presence of pressure wave and therefore, the
presence of gas vibration. The term knock is used to include all phenomena that arise from auto-
ignition.

Detonation in SI engines can be suppressed by addition of only a small quantity (1/900 Volume) of
tetraethyl lead. This process is called 'Doping'.

Effect of Knocking (Effect of detonation)

1) The impact on the engine components and structures may cause failure and creates
undesirable noise which is always objectionable.

2) The lack of control of combustion process leads to pre ignition and local over- heating.
Therefore piston may be damaged by overheating.

3) The pressure differences in the combustion chamber cause the gas to vibrate and scrub the
chamber walls causing increased loss of heat to the coolant.

4) Detonation results in increased carbon deposits on the wall of the cylinder.

5) Due to increase in the rate of heat transfer, the power output as well as efficiency of the
engine will decrease.

Factors Affecting Knocking in SI Engines (Effect of engine variables on detonation)

The various engine variables affecting detonation can be classified under four factors, namely, the
temperature factors density factors, time factors and composition factors.

(i) Temperature factors:

Increasing the temperature of the unburnt mixture by any factor in design or operation will increase
the possibility of knock in the SI engine. The temperature of the unburnt mixture is increased by the
following factors:

Raising the compression ratio

Supercharging

Raising the inlet air temperature

Raising the coolant temperature

Increasing the load

Raising the temperature of the cylinder and combustion chamber walls.

Advancing the spark timing.

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(ii) Density factors:

Any factors which increase the density of the charge tends to increase in knocking by providing
excess energy release. The following method will increase the possibility of knock in the SI engine.

increasing the compression ratio,

Opening the throttle,

Supercharging the engine

Increasing the inlet pressure

Advancing the spark timing

(iii) Time factors:

Increasing the flame speed or reducing the duration of the ignition delay period or reducing the time of
exposure of the unburned mixture to auto ignition condition it will tend to reduce knocking. The
following factors will increase the possibility of knocking:

Increasing flame travel distance: Engine size, combustion chamber size and spark plug position are
the three factors governing the flame travel distance.

Decreasing the turbulence of mixture.

Decreasing the speed of the engine.

Increasing the time available for pre-flame reaction.

(iv) Composition factors:

The properties of fuel and the fuel-air ratio are the primary means for controlling knock, once the
compression ratio and engine dimensions are selected. The probability of knock is increased by the
following factors:

Low octane number

Lean mixture of air fuel ratio

Decreasing atmospheric humidity

Low self-ignition temperature

Short ignition delay.

Velocity of Flame Propagation in SI Engines

Combustion in SI engine depends upon the rate of propagation of flame front. Flame front is nothing
but the boundary or front surface of the flame that separated the burnt charges from unburnt one.
Flame speed or velocity of flame propagation is the speed at which the flame front travels. Flame
speed affects the combustion phenomena, pressure developed in the cylinder and power produced.
Burning rate of mixture depends on the flame speed and shape/contour of the combustion chamber.

This study is very important because the flame speed influences the rate of pressure rise in the
cylinder and has bearing on certain types of abnormal combustion. The various factors that affect the
flame speed are discussed below:

(i) Fuel-air ratio:

The fuel-air ratio influences the rate of combustion and the amount of heat liberated. The highest
flame speed is obtained with somewhat richer mixture. When the mixture is made leaner or richer or
still more, the velocity of flame decreases. Less thermal energy released in the case of lean mixture

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resulting in lower flame speed. Very rich mixtures lead to incomplete combustion which results again
in the release of less thermal energy.

(ii) Turbulence:

The flame speed is very low in non-turbulent mixtures and increases with increasing turbulence. The
turbulence of the mixture is due to admission of fuel air mixture through comparatively narrow
sections of the intake pipe, valves etc. in the suction stroke. The degree of turbulence increases
directly with the piston speed. The turbulence can be increased at the end of compression stroke by
suitable design of combustion chamber. Insufficient turbulence lowers the efficiency of the engine due
to incomplete combustion of fuel.

(iii) Compression ratio:

A higher compression ratio increases the pressure and temperature of the mixture which reduces the
initial propagation phase of combustion. This also reduces the clearance volume and therefore
increases the density of the cylinder gases during burning. These phenomenon increases the flame
speed with increase in compression ratio.

(iv) Intake pressure and temperature:

Increase in intake pressure and temperature will increase the flame speed.

(v) Engine speed:

The flame speed increases linearly with engine speed since increase in engine speed increases the
turbulence inside the cylinder.

(vi) Engine size:

When the engine size is small, it does not have much effect on the flame speed. But in large engines,
the time required for complete combustion is more because the flame has to travel a longer distance.
It requires increased crank angle duration during the combustion. That is why large sized engines are
designed to operate at low speeds.

(vii) Engine load:

With increase in engine load, the cycle pressure increases. Hence the flame speed will increase.

Pre-ignition

Pre-ignition is defined as the phenomenon of ignition of the charge before the ignition spark occurs.
This type of ignition is caused when some parts of the combustion space e.g., spark plug, exhaust
valve, carbon particles in the combustion chamber are over heated under certain operating
conditions.

When pre-ignition occurs, it is the equivalent of an advanced spark and may cause detonation.
Conversely, when detonation is severe and long continued, it may heat up the spark plug points or
carbon particles.

Pre-ignition may cause high rates of pressure rise due to multiple ignition points and advanced timing,
together with irregular detonation. Pre-ignition leads to increase in pressure before the piston reaches
TDC and hence the piston movement is opposed and the power output is reduced.

In heavy-duty engine, excessive heating due to pre-ignition may cause piston and cylinder damage. In
multi-cylinder engines pre-ignition may develop in one or more cylinders, then the remaining cylinder
will take full load and hence probably result in piston seizure followed by the breaking up of the piston
with catastrophic results to the whole engine.

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SI Engine Combustion Chambers

The design of the combustion chamber for an SI engine has an important influence on the engine
performance and its knocking tendencies. The design involves the following factors:

(i) Shape of the combustion chamber, (ii) Location of spark plug and (iii) Location of inlet and exhaust
valves.

The important requirements of an SI engine combustion chamber are:

(i) to provide high power output with minimum octane requirement, (ii) high thermal efficiency and (iii)
smooth engine operation.

(i) T-head engine:

The T-head combustion chambers were used in the early stage of engine development. T-shape
combustion chamber projects around the cylinder head. It has the inlet valve on one side and the
exhaust valve on the other side of the cylinder. Thus, two cam shafts are required to operate them.
The combustion chamber and the cylinder form a letter 'T'. The spark plug is fitted at the top and
valves on the sides. Generally, small engines are made with T-head arrangement. This type of
engines has good efficiency. Since, the distance across the combustion chamber is very long,
knocking tendency is high in this type of engines.

Disadvantages:

1. Unequal temperature occurs in the cylinder.

2. More power is wasted in operating two camshafts.

3. Cost and weight are more.

(ii) L-head engine:

A modification of the T-head type of combustion chamber is the L-head type which provides the two
valves on the same side of the cylinder and the valves are operated by a single camshaft. The
combustion chamber and the cylinder are arranged in the form of inverted 'L'. All valves can be
operated by a single crankshaft.

Advantages:

1. One cam shaft is only required.

2. Height is reduced.

3. As the valves are arranged in one line, the removal of the cylinder is quite easy for servicing.

4. It is more dependable.

Disadvantages:

1. More space for combustion chamber is required.

2. Knocking tendency is more than T-head engine.

3. Location of spark plug is difficult.

4. High compression ratio is not possible.

(iii) I-head engine:

In these engines, the cylinder head carries both valves. It is also called as overhead valve engine. In
case of inline engines, the valves are arranged in a single row while the valves may be arranged in a

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single row or double row in each bank in case of V-engines. All the valves are actuated by a single
crankshaft. The engines with this type of combustion chamber are used in high speed vehicles and
racing cars. The overhead valve engine is superior to a side valve or an L-head engine at high
compression ratios for the following reasons.

1. Pumping losses and higher volumetric efficiency are low from better breathing of the engine from
larger valves or valve lifts and more direct passageways.

2. Distance is less for the flame to travel and therefore, greater freedom from knock or in other words,
lower octane requirements.

3. Force is less on the head bolts and therefore less possibility of leakage. The projected area of a
side valve combustion chamber is inevitably greater than an overhead valve chamber.

4. Absence of exhaust valve from block also results in more uniform cooling of cylinder and piston.

5. Surface-volume ratio is low and therefore, heat loss and less air pollution are less.

6. It is easy to cast and hence, it reduces casting cost.

Advantages:

1. A single camshaft actuates all valves.

2. Clearance volume is less. Hence, compression ratio can be increased considerably.

3. The spark plug can be located at centre.

4. Smooth operation can be obtained.

Disadvantages:

1. More valve mechanism parts are involved.

2. The cylinder head requires more cooling.

3. It is more complicated design.

4. The size of the inlet and exhaust valve is limited.

(iv) F-head engine:

In this arrangement, inlet valves are located in the cylinder head and exhaust valves by the sides of
cylinders. These engines being combination of L-head and I-head engineers are known as F-head
engines. It is also called IOE (Inlet Over Exhaust) chambers. Both inlet and exhaust sets are driven
from the same camshaft. Modern F-head engines have exhaust valve in the head and inlet valve in
the cylinder block.

Advantages:

1. More turbulence is possible.

2. More speed is possible.

Disadvantages:

1. More space is required for the combustion chamber.

2. Location of spark plug is difficult.

3. Design of combustion chamber is difficult.

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COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES

The combustion phenomenon in CI engine is fundamentally different from that in a SI engine. In the SI
engine, a homogeneous mixture of petrol and air is sucked during suction stroke and compressed
(compression ratio 6:1 to 11:1) during compression stroke. Then the mixture is ignited by spark plug at
the end of the compression stroke. After ignition a single flame front progresses through the air-fuel
mixture.

In the CI engine, only air is compressed in a cylinder to a high pressure (compression ratio 12:1 to
22:1) and temperature. Fuel is injected in atomized form (i.e. minute droplet) by fuel injector in the
combustion chamber. To evaporate this droplet, the latent heat is absorbed from the surrounding air
which reduces the temperature of a thin layer of air surrounding the droplet. As soon as this vapour
and the air reach the level of the auto ignition temperature and the local air-fuel ratio is with in
combustible range, ignition takes place. Once ignition has taken place and a flame established, the
heat required for further evaporation would be supplied from that released by combustion. Thus it is
obvious that at first is a certain delay period before ignition takes place.

STAGES OF COMBUSTION IN CI ENGINES

The combustion process in CI engine can be divided into four broad stages as follows:

(i) Ignition-delay period.

(ii) Uncontrolled combustion period

(iii) Controlled combustion period and

(iv) After-burning period.

(i) Ignition delay period:

The delay period is counted from the start of injection to the point where the p-0 curve departs from
air compression curve. The delay period can be sub-divided into two types:

(a) Physical delay and (b) Chemical delay.

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The physical delay period is the time between the beginning of injection and the attainment of
chemical reaction conditions. During this period fuel is atomized, vapourised, mixed with air and
raised to its self-ignition temperature. During the chemical delay reactions start slowly and then
accelerate until ignition takes place. Generally the chemical delay is larger than physical delay.

The delay period in the CI engine exerts a very great influence on engine design. It is of extreme
importance because of its effect on both the combustion rate and knocking and also its influence on
engine starting ability and the presence of smoke in the exhaust

(ii) Uncontrolled combustion period:

This period is also called as period of rapid combustion. This period is counted from the end of the
delay period to the point of maximum pressure on the indicator diagram. During this period, the rise of
pressure is rapid because during the delay period the droplets of fuel have had time to spread
themselves out over a wide area and they have fresh air all around them. The rate of heat release is
maximum during this stage. About one third of heat is evolved during this process.

The rate of pressure rise depends on the amount of fuel present at the end of delay period. The
amount of fuel present depends upon the delay period which, in turn, is a function of many variables.

(iii) Controlled combustion period:

At the end of the second stage, the pressure and temperature are quite high. Hence the fuel injected
at the same rate after burring at which it is injected with reduced ignition delay. Any further pressure
rise is controlled by the injection rate. The period of controlled combustion is assumed to end at
maximum cycle temperature. The heat evolved by the end of controlled combustion is about 70 to
80%.

(iv) After-burning period:

The combustion continues even after the fuel injection is over, because of poor distribution of fuel
particles. The unburnt and partially burnt fuel particles left in the combustion chamber start burning as
soon as they come into contact with the oxygen. This process continues for a certain period called the
after-burning period. This period starts from the point of maximum cycle temperature and continues
over part of expansion stroke up to 70° to 80° of crank travel from TDC. The after-burning is
undesirable because it reduces the power output and produces smoke at its exhaust. This can be
eliminated either by supplying of more excess air or creating more turbulence.

Factors affecting Delay Period

Delay period is the time between the start of injection of fuel and the start of ignition. The time for
which it decreases with increase in engine speed is called delay period. The delay period should be
as short as possible because a long delay period gives a more rapid rise in pressure rise and thus
causes knocking.

The various factors which affect the delay period are given below:

(i) Compression ratio:

The delay period increases with increase in compression ratio and decreases with increase in
pressure ratio. Delay period is shorter with higher compression ratio.

(ii) Engine speed:

The delay period decreases with increase in engine speed since the loss of heat during compression
decreases, resulting the rise in both the temperature and pressure of the compressed air. This is the
reason why diesel engines run better at higher speeds compared to idling speeds.

(iii) Temperature and Pressure of intake air:

The delay period is reduced either with increased temperature or pressure of the intake air because,
the vapourisation rate increases with the increase of either temperature or pressure or both.

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(iv) Engine output:

With an increase in engine output, the air-fuel ratio decreases, operating temperatures increase and
hence delay period decreases.

(v) Properties of fuel:

Self-ignition temperature is the most important properly of the fuel which affects the delay period. A
lower self-ignition temperature results in a lower delay period. Fuels with higher cetane number give
lower delay period. Less viscous fuels give small delay period.

(vi) Atomization and duration of injection:

The delay period decreases with increase in pressure of the injected fuel because it provides better
atomization, penetration and distribution of the fuel. Also duration of injection i.e., change in the
quantity of fuel supplied with the crank angle travel will affect the

rates of pressure rise during second stage of combustion though ignition delay remains unaffected by
the same.

(vii) Injection timing:

Early injection of fuel increases the delay period. Minimum delay period occurs when the delay period
is equally extended on each side of TDC. This is objectionable because it leads to poor thermal
efficiency. Injection of fuel about 11.5° before TDC gives minimum delay period.

Knocking Phenomenon In Cl Engines

If the delay period is long, a large amount of fuel will be injected and accumulated in the combustion
chamber. The auto-ignition of this large amount of fuel may cause high rate of pressure rise. This high
pressure rise causes the heavy vibration of the engine and creates lot of noise. This phenomenon of
combustion causing heavy pressure rise during uncontrolled combustion is known as "Diesel knock".
Diesel knock generally starts at the very beginning of the combustion process due to sudden auto-
ignition of large amount of fuel whereas the knocking in the SI engine generally starts at the end of
combustion period.

The following methods can be adopted to prevent diesel knock.

i. By reducing the delay period by doping e.g. adding 1% of ethyl nitrate or any nitrate so as to
accelerate the combustion.
ii. By increasing the turbulence of the compressed air injected, promotes homogeneous mixture
by strapping the fuel from the spray.
iii. By arranging the fuel injector in such a way as to inject only a small quantity of fuel in the
beginning.
iv. By supercharging i.e. increasing the inlet pressure of air.
v. By increasing the injector pressure which encourages the automisation of fuel.
vi. By raising the temperature of coolant, intake air as well as cylinder head and combustion
chamber.
vii. By increasing the compression ratio to produce a temperature much higher than that required
for the spontaneous ignition of the fuel.

Comparison of Knock in SI and CI Engines

(i) In SI engine, the knocking occurs at the end of combustion whereas in Cl engine knocking occurs
at the very beginning of combustion.

(ii) The detonation in the SI engine is of a homogeneous charge causing very high rate of pressure
rise and very high maximum pressure. In the CI engine, the fuel and air are heterogeneous and hence
the rate of pressure rise is normally lower than that in the detonating part of the charge in the SI
engine.

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(iii) In the CI engine, the fuel is injected into the cylinder only at the end of the compression stroke,
there is no question of pre-ignition as in SI engine.

(iv) In the CI engine, server audible knock is always present during knocking as compared to SI
engine.

Cl Engine Combustion Chambers

In CI engines, there are many types of combustion chambers. Each of them has its own merits and
demerits based on the idle of application. So, no combustion is generalized for all types of
applications. Therefore, the type of combustion chamber is selected based on the field of application.

Generally, there are two specific designs are used in CI engines. They are follows:

1. Non-turbulent type of combustion chamber

(i) Open or direct combustion chamber

2. Turbulent type of combustion chamber

(i) Squish combustion chamber

(ii) Pre-combustion chamber

(iii) Energy cell

(iv) M.A.N. 'M' combustion chamber.

1. Non-turbulent type of combustion chamber:

(i) Open or direct combustion chamber:

An open combustion chamber is defined as one in which the combustion space is essentially a single
cavity with less restriction from one part of the chamber to the other. Hence, there is with no large
difference in pressure between parts of the chamber during the combustion process.

Open combustion chamber is made similar to a groove inside the top of the piston. In this type, the
entire volume of combustion chamber is located in the main cylinder and the fuel is injected into this
volume. The injector fitted at the center of the cylinder head so that it injects the fuel directly into the
upper portion of the combustion chamber. This type slightly depends on turbulence to perform mixing.
In this combustion chamber, the heat loss from chamber walls to neighbouring parts is relatively less
and easy to start. To achieve proper mixing, high injection pressure and multi-orifice nozzles are used.

14
It necessitates small nozzle openings and results in more frequent clogging or diversion of the fuel
spray by accumulated carbon particles with consequent higher maintenance cost.

This type of combustion chamber is mainly used in low speed engines where the injection is spread
through a greater period of time. So, the ignition delay is less important here. Hence, it leads to longer
ignition delay.

In four-stroke engines, with open combustion chambers, induction swirl is obtained either by careful
formation of the air intake passages or by masking a portion of the circumference of the inlet valve
whereas in two-stroke engines, it is created by suitable form for the inlet ports.

Advantages:

Minimum heat loss during compression because of lower surface area to volume ratio and hence,
better efficiency.

a) There is no cold starting problems.

b) It ensures fine atomization because of multi hole nozzle.

Disadvantages:

a) There is high fuel-injection pressure. Hence, complex design is for fuel injection pump.

b) There is a necessity of accurate metering of fuel by the injection system, particularly for small
engines.

2. Turbulent type of combustion chamber:

The most important function of CI engine combustion chamber is to provide proper mixing of fuel and
air in a short time. In order to achieve it, an organized air movement called swirl is provided to
produce high relative velocity between fuel droplets and air. Swirl is a circular motion which is given to
the incoming air during the suction stroke. The swirl combustion chamber is also known as turbulence
combustion chamber in which the air is given a swirl while coming in the cylinder.

15
In this type of combustion chambers, the combustion space is divided into two parts, one part is in the
main cylinder and the other part is in the cylinder head. The fuel injection is effected usually into the
part of chamber located in the cylinder head. The upward moving piston forces the air at a greater
velocity into a small anti-chamber. It creates a rotary motion to the air at the pintle type nozzle. So, it
mixes the fuel in the swirled air so that mixing and burning of the fuel takes place completely.

Next, the pressure built up in anti-chamber forces the burning and unburned fuel, and air mixtures into
the main combustion chamber. It develops high turbulence to assist further combustion.

Advantages:

(i) It shortens the ignition delay period when compared to non-turbulent type of combustion chamber.
Also, it limits the pressure rise. So, the engine running is smooth.

(ii) The turbulence helps or rapid mixing and burning of fuel during the third stage of combustion.

(iii) It is more suitable for high speed engines and it makes complete combustion early in the third
stage without leaving any unburnt products.

Disadvantages:

Cold starting is really challengeable due to air heat loss to combustion chamber walls in the
compression stroke. The combustion chamber is usually cool at the starting.

Again, the combustion chambers for CI engines are classified into four categories based on the
method of generating swirl or turbulence.

(i) Squish combustion chamber

(ii) Pre-combustion chamber

(iii) Energy cell or air cell

(iv) Μ.Α.Ν. 'M' combustion chamber.

(i) Squish combustion chamber:

Squish is a flow of air which goes from the periphery to the center of the cylinder. To get a squish in
the combustion chamber, a groove is made inside the piston head. During the compression stroke,
when the piston moves from BDC to TDC, it will squeeze the air from the periphery towards the
center. This action gives turbulence to the air. The fuel is injected at the center of the combustion
chamber. Sometimes, the squish combustion chamber is made inside the cylinder head.

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(ii) Pre-combustion chamber:

Typical pre-combustion chamber consists of an anti-chamber connected to the main chamber through
a number of small holes. The pre-combustion chamber is located in the cylinder head and its volume
accounts for about 40% of the total combustion space. There are two combustion chambers. Among
them, one is auxiliary combustion chamber and the other is main combustion chamber. The auxiliary
combustion chamber is smaller in size than the main combustion chamber. During the compression
stroke, the piston forces the air into the pre-combustion chamber where it partly burns. This partly
burnt fuel is violently forced through a small orifice in the main combustion chamber where the
complete combustion takes place. The rapid forcing creates air turbulence in the main chamber which
helps to ignite the fuel completely.

Advantages:

(i) It shortens the ignition delay which reduces

knocking. So, the engine running is smooth.

(ii) The combustion process in the third stage

is rapid.

(iii) Due to thorough mixing fuel and air by

violent forcing of combustion products from
pre-combustion chamber, the fuel injection system need not be critical.

Disadvantages:

(i) The velocity of burning mixture is too high while forcing from pre-chamber to main chamber. So, the
heat loss is very high. It reduces the thermal efficiency of the engine due to increase in compression
ratio.

(ii) In this case also, cold starting is difficult due to more heat loss to chamber walls in the
compression stroke.

(iii) Energy cell or air cell:

Energy cell is a small combustion chamber connected through air in a narrow passage with the main
combustion chamber. In energy cell, both compression and combustion swirl are induced. During
compression stroke, air is compressed in the air cell also. When the fuel is injected in the main
combustion chamber, it burns and the piston moves down. At this time, the compressed hot air of the
energy cell comes in the main chamber creating a turbulence to make complete combustion. There is
more heat loss due to increased surface of the cylinder.

(iv) M.A.N 'M' combustion chamber:

It was developed by Dr. Meuner, Germany called M-process engine. It was also called whisper
engine. It differs from other combustion chambers. Fuel spray impinges tangentially on and spreads
over the surface of a spherical space in the piston. Always, there is some impingement of fuel spray in
diesel engines. Sufficient spray is ignited before impingement. So, the delay period is normal.
Therefore, the second combustion stage is slowed down by avoiding excessive rate of pressure rise.

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Advantages:

(i) Peak pressure is low.

(ii) Pressure rise is also low.

(iii) Smoke level is low.

(iv) It has the ability to operate on a wide range of liquid fuels

Disadvantages:

(i) Volumetric efficiency is low.

(ii) Cold starting needs some external aids due to fuel vaporization depending on the surface
temperature of the combustion chamber.

(iii) Hydrocarbon emissions may occur at stating and idling conditions.

The following factors are considered while selecting a particular type of combustion chamber to
perform the required task:

(i) Heat lost to combustion chamber walls

(ii) Injection pressure

(iii) Nozzle design

(iv) Maintenance

(v) Ease of starting

(vi) Fuel requirement

(vii) Utilization of air

(viii) Weight relation of engine to power output

(ix) Capacity for variable speed operation.

RATING OF FUELS

Normally fuels are rated for their antiknock qualities. The rating of fuel is done by defining two
parameters called Octane number and Cetane number for petrol and diesel oil respectively.

Rating of SI Engine Fuels (Octane Number)

SI engine fuels should have the strong tendency to resist the knocking. The tendency of knocking
depends upon the composition of fuel. Fuels differ widely in their ability to resist knock. A satisfactory
rating method for comparing the antiknock qualities of the various fuels has been established. The
rating of a particular fuel is done by comparing its performance with that of a standard reference fuel
which is usually a combination of iso-octane and n- heptane. Iso-octane chemically being a very good
antiknock fuel is arbitrarily assigned a rating of 100 octane number. h-heptane, on the other hand, has
very poor antiknock qualities and is given a rating of 0 octane number.

Octane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage of iso-octane by volume in a mixture of iso-
octane and n-heptane which exactly matches the knocking intensity of a given fuel in a standard
engine under given standard operating conditions.

For example: An octane number of 75 means that the fuel has the same knocking tendency as a
mixture of 75% Iso-octane and 20% h-heptane by volume.

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Engines with low compression ratio can use fuels with lower octane numbers, but high compression
engines must use high-octane fuel to avoid self-ignition and knock. The higher the octane number of
the fuel, the greater will be its resistance to knock and higher will be the compression ratio which may
be used without knocking.

There are several different tests used for rating octane numbers, each of which will give a slightly
different octane number value. The two most common methods of rating petrol and other automobile
SI fuels are the Motor method and the Research method. Another less common method is the
Aviation method. This method is used for aircraft fuel.

Common octane numbers for gasoline fuels used in automobiles range from 87 to 95, with higher
values available for special high-performance and racing engines. Reciprocating SI aircraft engines
usually use low-lead fuels with octane numbers in the range of 85 to 100. The fuels used in the aero-
engines should have the highest octane number (more than 100) since they are super charged
engines which has greater knocking tendency. A common additive used for many years to raise the
octane number of a fuel was tetraethyl lead (TEL). A few millimeter of TEL in several liters of gasoline
could raise the octane number several points in a very predictable manner. The major problem with
TEL is the lead which is very tonic.

The various factors affect octane number of fuels are combustion chamber geometry, turbulence,
swirl, temperature, inert gases etc.

Rating of CI Engine Fuels (Cetane Number)

In CI engines, the knock resistance depends on chemical characteristics as well as the operating and
design conditions of the engine. The knock in the CI engine is due to sudden ignition and abnormal
rapid combustion of accumulated fuel in the combustion chamber. This situation occurs due to ignition
delay (ID) in the combustion of the fuel between the time of injection and the actual burning. The
property that quantities the ignition delay is Cetane number.

Like octane number rating, cetane numbers are established by comparing the test fuel to two
standard reference fuels. The fuel component n-cetane (hexadecane), C15H34, is given the cetane
number value of 100, while alpha methylnaphthalene, C₁₁H10, is given the value of 0.

Cetane number of a fuel is defined as the percentage by volume of normal cetane in a mixture of
normal cetane and alpha methyl naphthalene which has the same ignition delay as the fuel being
tested, in the same engine and under the same operating conditions.

For example, a CI engine fuel of cetane number 70 has the same ignition quality as a mixture of 70
percent normal cetane and 30 percent alpha methylnaphthalene.

For larger the cetane number, the shorter will be the ignition delay and the quicker the fuel will self-
ignite quickly in the combustion chamber. A low cetane number means the fuel will have a long
ignition delay.

The knocking in CI engine may be controlled by decreasing ignition delay. Therefore, high cetane
number fuels are used in CI engine. This leads to increase in efficiency of fuel. Cetane numbers
below 40 result in unacceptable levels of exhaust smoke and are illegal by many emission laws. The
cetane number of fuel can be raised with certain additives such as amyl nitrate, ethyl nitrate or ether.

AIR POLLUTION

Air pollution is the introduction of chemicals, particulate matter, or biological materials that cause harm
or discomfort to humans or other living organisms. Air pollution damages the natural environment
present in the atmosphere.

AIR POLLUTANTS FROM SI AND CI ENGINES

1) Carbon monoxide (CO):

CO is produced because of insufficient supply of air for combustion. CO has more affinity than oxygen
for hemoglobin in our blood. It reduces the ability of hemoglobin to carry O₂ to the body tissues.

19
Hence, it affects the nervous system and vision if the percentage of CO is more. Finally, it affects
heart.

2) Oxides of nitrogen:

In high temperatures, nitrogen reacts with oxygen and produces nitric oxide and nitrogen dioxide.
They affect living organisms. They affect blood purification system. It may be mixed with moisture. It
may also produce dilute nitric acid in the heart and affect the heart.

3) Hydrocarbons:

Hydrocarbon is produced due to incomplete combustion. Hydrocarbon produces smog. It affects the
vision of human being. Smog is the mixture of fog and smoke.

4) Photo chemical smog:

Some hydrocarbons and oxides of nitrogen in exhaust react with atmospheric air in the presence of
sunlight and produce photochemical smog. It damages the plant's life. It reduces the visibility. It
produces eye irritation and affects the respiratory system of human beings.

5) Smoke:

Smoke is produced because of insufficient mixing of fuel and air. It contains CO and CO2. When cold
starting, blue white smoke is produced when more carbon particles are mixed with exhaust. Smog is
produced by smoke. It causes irritation of eyes, coughing, headache and vomiting.

6) Lead:

Lead is poisonous. It is a toxic air pollutant. It is produced from the combustion of gasoline. It affects
liver and kidneys. It causes mental effects to children.

7) Particulate:

Particulates are minute separate particles found in the air. They may be solid or liquid particles. The
dust soot and fly ash are included in it. It causes respiratory diseases such as bronchitis and lung
cancer and allergic diseases.

8) Sulphur oxide:

Sulphur oxide is produced if the fuel has sulphur. It may damage the plants. It causes irritation to eye
and throat and it gives respiratory troubles to children. It corrodes materials.

SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS FROM CI ENGINE

A well-maintained diesel engine emits a negligible amount of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons,
though considerable amount of nitrogen oxides are emitted. Diesel smoke is another pollutant in case
of diesel engines. The diesel smokes are of two types. They are:

(1) white smoke, and (2) black smoke. The white smoke normally arises due to

(i) too low operating temperature

(ii) too long delay between start of fuel injection and beginning of combustion.

White smoke appears during starting and warming up. The black smoke appears after the engine has
fully warmed up and accelerating or pulling under load. The black smoke is a suspending of soot
particles in exhaust gases. It results from incomplete combustion of fuel. Blue smoke occurs due to
excessive lubricating oil consumption. Its emission indicates a very poor condition of the engine such
as worn-out piston rings or valve guide etc. The blue smoke is not considered as a serious pollution.

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SOURCES OF AIR POLLUTANTS FROM SI ENGINE

There are three main sources of air pollution due to petrol engine.

1. Evaporative losses through carburetor

2. Crankcase blow-by.

3. Exhaust emissions through tail pipe.

1. Evaporative emission:

Evaporative emission takes place from the fuel supply system. The main reason of hydrocarbon
evaporation is high temperature. Fuel volatility, locations of tank, layer of fuel line and mode of
operation also affect the evaporation. About 30% of the total hydrocarbon emission is occurring from
the fuel tank, fuel line and carburetor.

2. Crankcase blow-by:

Crank case blow-by means the leakage past the piston and piston rings from the cylinder to the crank
case. In blow by gases, there are about 85% or raw HC and rest 15% of the current gases. It is about
20% of the total HC emission from the engine and it may be 30% of rings worn out. The blow-by
gases are controlled by the crankcase ventilation system.

3. Exhaust emission:

The exhaust emission contains, HC, CO and NO2 (oxide of nitrogen). HC occurs in exhaust due to
incomplete combustion. The emission of HC is closely related to many designing and operating
factors such as induction system, combustion chamber design, air fuel ratio, speed, load and mode of
operation. Lean mixture gives lower HC emission.

CO occurs due to insufficient amount of air in the air fuel mixture or insufficient time for complete
combustion.

The combination of nitric oxide (NO₂) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) occurs only in the engine exhaust.
High temperatures and availability of oxygen are the two main reasons for the formation of NO2. The
spark advance and air-fuel ratio are the two important factors which affect the formation of NO2.

POLLUTION CONTROL

The pollution may be controlled by the following two ways.

1. The formation of pollutants is prevented as far as possible.

2. The pollutants are destroyed after they are formed.

Control of hydrocarbon:

Formation of hydrocarbon may be reduced by the following methods.

1. Reducing the compression ratio.

2. Changing the design of combustion chamber.

3. Changing the design of piston.

4. By supplying lean mixture.

5. By maintaining of piston and piston ring.

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Destroying the hydrocarbon may be done by the following methods.

1. By supplying air to the inlet manifold.

2. By using after burner.

3. By using catalytic converter.

Control of CO:

Methods of reducing CO are as follows.

1. By using closed loop control.

2. By supplying lean mixture.

3. By providing suitable overlap of valves.

Methods of destroying CO are given below.

1. By using reactor in the exhaust manifold.

2. By using after burner.

3. By using catalyst converter.

Control of oxides of nitrogen:

Methods of reducing oxides of nitrogen are listed below.

1. By supplying the exhaust again to the inlet manifold.

2. By spraying water in the inlet manifold to add moisture to the mixture.

3. By using catalyst converter in the exhaust, the oxides of nitrogen can be destroyed.

Control of smoke and smog:

Methods of reducing smoke and smog are given below.

1. Running the engine with a limited load.

2. Maintaining the engine well.

3. By adding barium salt in the fuel.

4. By using catalyst muffler.

Odour control:

Methods to control odour are as follows.

1. By using catalyst muffler.

2. By changing the injection system in diesel engine.

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METHODS OF EMISSION CONTROL

Evaporative Emission Control for SI engine

Petrol vapour from fuel tank escapes into atmosphere by evaporation (or breathing). This vapour
comes out through filter cap vent or the tank vent tube. When the engine is not running, petrol will
evaporate in the carburettor float chamber. It is estimated as 10% of the total hydrocarbon emission in
losses from the fuel tank.

A simple system to control these losses. In this, fuel tank and carburettor float chamber are vented to
a carbon canister. The canister absorbs the vapour and stores it. "Absorb" means the petrol vapour
which is trapped by striking to the outside of charcoal particles. A vapour-liquid separator is provided
on the top of fuel tank. Vapour goes to the tap of the separator while the liquid petrol is returned to the
tank. The separator is riled with filter material that allows vapour but not liquid to pour. Figure shows a
float type vapour liquid separator where the float goes up and closes the orifice to the canister hose.

Carburettor float bowl has two vents. One is connected to

the air cleaner and it helps to compensate a clogged air
cleaner. The other vents connect to the charcoal canister.
Various arrangements may control this vent. A special filter
cap is provided on the fuel tank which maintains some
pressure in the tank which forces fuel vapour from tank to
canister.

Flow of vapour from the fuel tank may be controlled by mechanically operated vent valve or an
electrically operated solenoid valve. The throttle linkage operates the mechanical valve. It allows the
vapour from float chamber to canister during idling. When the throttle is opened, the vent valve is
closed. So, the electrical vent valve is open with the ignition switch off when the ignition switch is on
the vent valve closed by the energization of solenoid. When the engine is operated, the fresh vapour
enters through the canister and picks up the petrol vapour from carbon in the canister. This air then
flows into the intake manifold and it becomes a part of air-fuel mixture entering the engine cylinders to
be burnt. This action of clearing the trapped petrol vapour from the canister is called purging.

Some evaporative control systems have the purge valve in the purge line. It connects to the throttle
body and it discharges vapour just above the throttle valve into the intake air.

Evaporative Emission Control System for CI Engine

The fuel injection system of IC engine has no float bowl. Therefore, the evaporative control system is
used only fuel vapour from the fuel tank.

23
In this, the canister has two connections. One is the connection to fuel tank, the other is the purge line
to the throttle body. Instead of a vacuum operated purge valve, an electric purge control solenoid may
be used. It is mounted on the canister or in the purge line.

Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) System

Excessive nitrogen oxides (NO₂) form when the peak combustion temperature exceeds 1950°C. To
lower the combustion temperature, many engines have EGR system. It recirculates 10% of the inert
gas back into the intake manifold.

The cooler exhaust gas absorbs heat from combustion process. It reduces the peak combustion
temperature and lowers the formation of NO2. EGR system provides a passage between exhaust
manifold and inlet manifold. An EGS valve provided on this line opens and closes the passage. Figure
shows a simplified diagram of a conventional EGR valve. It consists of a spring-loaded vacuum
diaphragm linked to a tapered valve. A vacuum chamber is provided at the top of the valve.

This valve controls the passage of exhaust gas. The chamber is connected by a tube to a vacuum
port in the throttle body. When there is no vacuum at this port, the spring pushes the diaphragm down
and keeps the passage closed. Therefore, no exhaust gas recirculates. It happens during idle when
NO2 formation is at a minimum. Also EGR could stall an idling engine.

When the throttle is opened from the idle position, vacuum applied will gradually open the tapered
valve. It causes the exhaust gas to flow into the intake manifold. At wide-open throttle, the intake
manifold vacuum is low and EGR valve is closed by the spring. Thus, EGR valve systems do not
affect full power operation. So, the exhaust gas is recirculated only in this system when the engine
operating conditions are from NO2.

Many engines have thermal vacuum switch. It prevents EGR until engine temperature reaches 38°C.
This switch is mounted in the engine water jacket where it consciences coolant temperature. The
switch closes when the engine is cold. It prevents EGR just after a cold engine starts. After the engine
warms up, the switch is opened.

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Engine Emission Control by Catalytic Converter

The term catalytic converter covers the stainless steel box mounted in the exhaust system. The
catalyst is inside the cover which is a ceramic or metallic base with an active coating incorporating
alumina, ceria and other oxides and combinations of the precious metals platinum, palladium and
rhodium. The base can be protected from vibration and shock by a resilient ceramic or metallic 'mat'.
The catalytic converter converts the pollutants such as HC, CO and NO2 into harmless gases. It is
placed between exhaust manifold and silencer. All exhaust gas must flow through it. The catalyst
causes a chemical change without being a part of the chemical reaction.

The inside of the catalytic converter is a honeycomb set of passageways or small ceramic beads
coated with catalysts. A chemical reaction takes place to make the pollutants less harmful. There are
many passages for the exhaust gases to flow and allow for the maximum amount of surface area for
the hot gases to pass. There are two main types of structures used in catalytic converters such as
honeycomb and ceramic beads. Most cars today use a honeycomb structure. Catalytic converters can
either be a two-way or three-way type.

I. Oxidation catalysts:

(a) Two-way or oxidation catalytic converter:

Early converters, called "two-way" (or oxidation) catalytic converter converts harmful carbon monoxide
(CO) and hydrocarbons (HC) produced by relatively inefficient, low compression engines of the day to
harmless carbon dioxide (CO₂) and water with the assistance of a precious-metallic catalyst. This
process converts these harmful gasses into water vapor and harmless carbon dioxide (CO₂). But
these converters have little effect on nitrogen oxides (NO₂) and particulate matter. Two-way
converters are most effective when used with engines that have a lean air/fuel mix because this
condition provides ample oxygen to burn pollutants.

(b) 3-way catalytic converter:

Most cars today are equipped with a 3-way catalytic converter. The term 3-way refers to the three
emissions whihe helps to reduce, carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons or volatile organic compounds
(VOCs) and NO, molecules. 3-way converters use two different types of catalysts, a reduction catalyst
and an oxidization catalyst. Both types consist of a base structure coated with a catalyst such as
platinum, rhodium and palladium. The scheme is to create a structure which exposes the maximum
surface area of the catalyst to the exhaust flow while also minimizing the amount of catalyst required.

3-way converters use two catalyst processes. They are reduction and oxidation processes. A
sophisticated oxygen storage/engine control system converts three harmful gasses such as HC, CO
and oxides of nitrogen (NOx). It is not an easy task because the catalyst requires to clean up. NOx is
most effective with a rich air/fuel mix whereas HC and CO reduction are most effective with a lean
air/fuel bias. To operate properly, a three-way converter first must convert NOx, then HC and CO are
converted into lean bias.

II. Reduction catalyst:

The reduction catalyst is the first stage of the catalytic converter. It uses platinum and rhodium to help
in reducing NOx emissions. When an NO or NO2 molecule contacts the catalyst, the catalyst rips the
nitrogen atom out of the molecule and holds on to it, freeing the oxygen in the form of O2. The
nitrogen atoms bond with other nitrogen atoms which are also stuck to the catalyst, forming N2.

2NO = N₂ + O2

2NO2 = N₂ + 2O2

25
(a) Oxidation catalyst:

The oxidation catalyst is the second stage of the catalytic converter. It reduces the unburned
hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide by burning (oxidizing) them over a platinum and palladium
catalyst. This catalyst aids the reaction of the CO and hydrocarbons with the remaining oxygen in the
exhaust gas.

2CO + O2 → 2CO₂

Vehicles with catalyst converter must use unleaded petrol. Lead in petrol rests the catalyst and makes
it ineffective. For the catalytic converter to most effective, the air fuel mixture must have stoichiometric
ratio of 14.7: 1. To achieve the described air fuel ratio at all operating conditions, a feedback system is
used. It determines the correct air fuel ratio of the intake charge by measuring the amount of oxygen
remaining in exhaust gases.

The diesel engine catalytic converter is a pure oxidation catalytic converter. It oxidizes HC and CO
into water and CO2. It cannot reduce NO2.

26