1
Introduction
Food production must increase by 50% by 2050 to accommodate the world's
expanding population (Abhilash et al. 2016). The World Bank projected that by 2050,
there will be ten billion people on the planet. The fact that economic progress has only
risen by 50% since 2013 is astounding. Based on data from the 2011 Rural Poverty
Report, over 75% of the world's impoverished reside in rural areas. In many areas,
agriculture serves as the primary economic activity and source of income. Enhancing
the income and productivity of small-scale farmers in agriculture is essential for
attaining food security and lowering poverty rates because it stimulates economic
development, particularly in non-agricultural and urban areas. According to
Alexandratos and Bruinsma (2012), in order to fulfill growing demand, worldwide
agricultural production would need to rise by 60% by 2050. The majority of this benefit
is anticipated to come from productivity increases. Climate change is severely affecting
crop productivity in several locations. Developing countries are more vulnerable to
these consequences. In many places, droughts, floods, high temperatures, and heavy
rains are growing more frequent and are predicted to get worse. Drought and water
shortages may worsen in arid places by century's end. Lobell et al. (2011) claim that
this will make climate change worse. Plant disease outbreaks are more likely as a result
of how host-pathogen interactions and pathogen evolution are impacted by climate
change. The procedure may alter the distribution of infections in areas that were not
previously afflicted and promote the emergence of new, more virulent pathogenic
strains. These modifications give rise to questions regarding the efficiency of plant
production in agricultural practices and natural environments, which might lower crop
yields and upset ecological systems (Singh et al. 2023).
Global food security is under threat from climate change, which might have
disastrous effects in the twenty-first century. Meeting the food demands of an
expanding population requires addressing these detrimental impacts. Basic crops that
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are consumed all around the world, such wheat, maize, and rice, are suffering from
climate change. The alarming trend in agricultural yield declines and the pressing need
to address them for a sustainable and food-secure future were brought to light by Lobell
et al. in 2011 and Syed et al. in 2022. Climate-related variables are gradually shifting,
including temperature, precipitation, and environmental calamities including salinity,
drought, and sea level rise However, in the decades that follow, they may negatively
impact agricultural productivity (Raza et al. 2021). Climate warming and extreme
weather will generate more issues for farmers. The IPCC 2012 report states that
agriculture will be made more difficult and complex by this. Figure 1.1 illustrates how
crop diversification, sustainable farming, and technology may reduce extreme poverty.
Farmers' livelihoods are improved and climate change is combated by reducing
greenhouse gas emissions, conserving resources, and maintaining healthy soil. Policies
that promote agroforestry, water management, and environmental preservation are
necessary. To address global issues, the integrated approach focuses on environmental
difficulties, poverty, and climate change.
Figure 1.1. Crop diversification tackles poverty, safeguards livelihoods, combats climate change, and
promotes sustainability, benefiting both farmers and the environment.
The impact of agriculture on global warming is significant. Smith et al. (2014) estimate
that between 5.2 and 5.8 gigatons of CO2 equivalent were emitted by agriculture in
2010. These emissions made for 10–12% of all emissions caused by humans globally.
The deposition of manure from pasturelands, the production of paddy rice, the burning
of biomass, enteric fermentation, and synthetic fertilizers are the sources of these
emissions. Even though they have decreased, emissions related to land-use change still
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account for 12% of global emissions. Agricultural emissions will rise as a result of
growth for food security, claim Lipper et al (2014). Global warming has accelerated
since 1750 as a result of human activities increasing GHG concentrations. By 2019, the
quantities of nitrous oxide, carbon dioxide, and methane are rising to alarming levels.
The average global surface temperature increased by 0.99°C between 2001 and 2020
compared to 1850–1900 levels, according to IPCC 2021 assessment. Global
temperature increased by 1.09°C on average between 2011 and 2020, with land areas
experiencing a greater rise in temperature than marine locations. According to Zhou et
al. (2021), greenhouse gas emissions will contribute 1.0–2.0°C to global warming,
whereas human influences will contribute 0.8-1.3°C.
Climate uncertainty caused by human behavior is worsening ecological disasters.
Constricted resource accessibility and small climate change contributions
disproportionately affect vulnerable populations, usually socioeconomically
disadvantaged (Mahmoud and Gan, 2018; Trenberth, 2018). Many causes contribute to
long-term global warming, including unregulated urbanization and industrialization.
Environmental disasters have worsened due to rising temperatures, worsening hunger,
undernourishment, and food insecurity in many areas (Iniguez-Gallardo et al. 2021).
Global maize and wheat yields have decreased by 3.8% and 5.5% due to climate
change, according to Battisti et al. (2009). Rising climatic variability increases farmers'
production risks and issues. For urban and rural populations, the global food crisis
threatens agricultural operations, market volatility, and earnings (Wheeler et al. 2000;
Thornton et al. 2010). Underprivileged farmers, landless people, and marginalized
ethnic groups are especially vulnerable (Olsson et al. 2014).
Modern agriculture is riskier due to weather instability and society’s demand for low-
input or ecologically friendly farming. To preserve productivity and the agricultural
system, farmers must adapt by diversifying land use (Frison et al., 2016). Climate
change and consumer expectations require agricultural diversification to ensure
farming systems' long-term resilience and sustainability (Isbell et al. 2017; Tilman et
al. 1998, 2002). To increase crop output in modern agriculture, sustainable solutions are
needed. In response to limited acreage, Andrade et al. (2015) advocate agricultural
intensification, which involves bigger fields and less crop variety. Increased intensity
often increases dependency on external inputs like fertilizers and pesticides, which may
hinder agroecosystems' self-regulation (Foley et al. 2005).
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This practice can also affect soil characteristics like organic matter decomposition,
nutrient cycling, and soil formation while balancing food production and ecological
concerns. Denef et al. (2001) noted that agricultural output and ecosystem functioning
depend on soil aggregation and SOC. However, land use patterns and crop management
approaches affect soil organic carbon (SOC) and soil aggregation dynamics differently
depending on location. Tillage and residue management must be adapted to the location.
Intense conventional plowing techniques in the Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) can disturb
soil aggregates and deplete soil organic carbon (SOC) (Hobbs et al. 2008). To maintain
soil fertility and productivity, conservation tillage practices must be adjusted to the site
(Six et al. 2000).
Maintaining soil health-physical and chemical-is crucial to ecosystem functioning.
Water flow, nitrogen cycling, soil organic carbon (SOC), and greenhouse gas emissions
are regulated to achieve this (Haile et al. 2008). Incorrect agricultural practices
including cereal crop rotation and overuse of chemical fertilizers can deplete soil
organic carbon (SOC) and quality (Yu et al. 2006). In the current context, effective
agricultural techniques like crop residue recycling, legume integration, and manure
application have been shown to improve soil organic carbon (SOC) storage and quality.
Maintaining soil health helps solve environmental issues and maintain soil fertility,
making it essential to sustainable agriculture. To maintain ecosystem equilibrium and
agricultural productivity, soil physicochemical qualities must be protected and
improved. The Indo-Gangetic Plains (IGP) of South Asia's rice-wheat production
system feeds a large portion of the world's population (Ladha et al. 2003). This system's
use of conventional methods, which are expensive, water-intensive, and energy-
intensive, raises concerns. Traditional rice production takes more water and work,
including puddling and seedbed preparation. This approach unintentionally disturbs soil
aggregates and increases organic carbon oxidation. Kumar et al. (2008) found that
growing wheat after puddled transplanted rice reduces wheat production by 8%.
Sapkota et al. (2017) discovered that this technique depletes soil organic carbon (SOC)
at 0.13 tons per hectare per year in the eastern Indo-Gangetic Plains. Bhatt et al. (2016)
noted that SOC depletion harms soil health, water use efficiency, and environmental
contamination. Sustainable agriculture meets food and fiber needs while protecting the
environment and ensuring farmer profitability (Robertson and Swinton, 2005; Godfray
et al. 2010).
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Foley et al. (2011) note that simpler cropping techniques and increasing reliance on
external inputs have enhanced worldwide crop production. However, this has
intensified environmental deterioration, making it difficult to reconcile agricultural
productivity and environmental sustainability (Sanderson et al. 2013; Bai et al. 2018).
However, many cropping strategies increase soil health, maximize resource use, and
reduce risks and ecological damage. Crop rotation and other diversification methods
can reduce economic, environmental, and human health issues associated with
conventional farming while encouraging more sustainable practices (Eyhorn et al.
2019). Cropping systems affect the carbon cycle and soil organisms in agricultural
environments. Guo and Gifford (2002) say woody patches in these landscapes
accumulate soil carbon and establish soil microbial communities. These places
decompose litter slower than cultivated areas, explaining this phenomenon. Long-term
crop rotations, especially those with cover crops, increase soil carbon and microbial
biomass compared to monocultures. References include (McDaniel et al. 2014a;
Tiemann, 2015; Venter, 2016). This phenomenon also affects root metabolites, residues,
fertilizers, and pest management, which regulate the soil microbial community in
agroecosystems (Roger-Estrade et al. 2010). Crop failures in semi-arid locations,
caused by factors including inadequate or excessive precipitation and pest infestations,
force small-scale farmers to use a variety of methods to survive. They have few
adaption options due to many constraints. Irrigation may be needed during prolonged
drought. However, inadequate water collection and irrigation infrastructure often hinder
prolonged farming during these gaps. Semi-arid regions struggle to maintain
livelihoods, highlighting the need for improved water management systems and
agricultural methods to boost resilience and food security in variable climates.
Agricultural landscape diversification can occur at several levels, from intra-field
polyculture to field boundary hedgerows and wildflower plantings. Set up riparian
corridors and irrigation canals to diversify (Kremen and Miles, 2012). Field edge
techniques, which build habitat without compromising arable land, are essential in
agricultural areas worldwide (Menz et al. 2011). Decourtye et al. (2010) found that
these methods boost biodiversity and ecosystem services in non-cropped areas. These
approaches also preserve agricultural productivity and increase agricultural landscape
sustainability and ecological resilience. Homeowners can reduce climate change and
external stressor sensitivity by diversifying crops with polycultures, crop rotations,
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agroforestry, and intercropping (Baumgartner et al. 2010; Lin et al. 2011).
Diversification creates genetic variety, structural variances, and species composition.
This method boosts productivity and pest control. The phenomena under discussion
have temporal and spatial implications, improving ecosystem functionality and
adaptability (Vandermeer et al. 1998; Lin, 2011). Due to climate change, seasonal
changes, droughts, and high temperatures, India's agriculture sector struggles.
Smallholder farmers face several difficulties to food, nutrition, and income. Agrarian
revolution is needed to solve these problems. Agriculture research by Nyasimi et al.
(2014) suggests that climate smart agriculture (CSA) can strengthen smallholder
farming systems' resistance to climate change.
Figure 1.2. Selected emerging crop diversification practices are (a) Guava + Wheat (b) Jackfruit
+Potato (c) Dragon fruit + turmeric+ papaya (d) Papaya+ Cicer (e) Dragon fruit + Strawberry (f)
Papaya+ Oats (g) Jackfruit + Wheat (h) Citrus+ Turmeric (i) Banana + Apple bear (j) Banana +
Cabbage (k) Citrus + Chili (l) Jackfruit + Colocasia (m) Dragon fruit + Marigold + Papaya
CSA includes crop diversification, agroforestry, conservation tillage, crop rotations,
intercropping, drought-resistant crop cultivation, water collecting, and integrated soil
fertility management (Faurès et al. 2013). Crop diversification is an effective way to
address global economic, social, and environmental difficulties, as well as India's many
obstacles. Crop diversity is the cultivation of multiple crop species in a given location.
Crop rotations and intercropping do this. This method of agricultural risk mitigation,
focusing on small-scale farmers, is sustainable and economically viable (Joshi et al.
2005). Figure 1.2. shows Eastern Uttar Pradesh's crop diversification techniques, which
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have many benefits. Soil health, pest and disease resistance, revenue, biodiversity, and
environmental impact have all improved with these agricultural approaches. These
technologies help regional farmers adapt to changing conditions, assuring agriculture's
long-term survival through sustainable practices, economic growth, and environmental
conservation. Crop diversification strategies boost agricultural resilience and
biodiversity at both geographical and temporal dimensions. Joshi (2005) states that
agricultural diversity, as seen in eastern Uttar Pradesh, increases farming income by
growing a variety of crops. The strategies increase agricultural food diversity while
conserving land and resources in harsh regions. Water, market demand, seeds,
fertilizers, and transportation affect agricultural diversity (Kundu and Chattopadhyay,
2018). Since most farmers in eastern UP have limited resources and small land
holdings, they must embrace high-value crops to increase their farming revenue. Given
the declining per capita land availability, rising food demand, and population increase
in eastern Uttar Pradesh, adaptive methods must be implemented on a larger scale.
Many eastern Uttar Pradesh farmers are unaware of crop insurance policies and other
ways to adjust to economic downturns. Due to abundant irrigation water and well-
established irrigation infrastructure, Mirzapur farmers benefit from crop diversity.
Thus, many farmers in these regions use field-level adaptive tactics such as edge crops,
intercropping, and neighboring crops. In dry Vindhyan, farmers diversify their farms
with caution. Timber-yielding plants like teak and valuable horticultural crops like
banana, guava, and phalsa are included.
Additionally, farmers also engage in livestock rearing, which includes cattle such as
cows, buffaloes, goats, sheep, and poultry. The implementation of this diversification
technique is frequently employed due to the limited availability of groundwater for
irrigation purposes. Dryland farmers have implemented various approaches,
exemplifying countless instances thereof. The Vindhyan region heavily relies on
groundwater as its primary water source, particularly for agricultural purposes.
Consequently, the implementation of crucial policies for the conservation of this vital
natural resource becomes imperative. Before the year 2000, wells served as the
predominant means of accessing irrigation water, and farmers possessed the financial
means to procure them. Nevertheless, the depletion of wells over the past twenty years
as a result of climate change has compelled individuals to excavate bore wells for
irrigation. There exists an imbalance in the utilization of groundwater resources for
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agricultural purposes among farmers of varying economic statuses. While farmers with
medium and high incomes possess the financial means to construct deep bore wells,
those who are resource-poor lack the necessary funds to do so. Due to a rapid decline
in groundwater levels, farmers of moderate scale are encountering difficulties in
annually drilling new and ever deeper bore wells. Consequently, the implementation of
adaptive techniques, specifically aimed at reducing adverse environmental
consequences, becomes imperative.
1.1. Emerging Cropping patterns for climate resilience
Cropping patterns are nowadays shifting and taking different to adapt agriculture under
changing climate. Some examples of emerging cropping patterns from eastern Uttar
Pradesh are listed as below:
• Growing underutilized, nutritious, high-value medicinal crops in home
gardens, such as Basella alba (India spinach). Any crop choice
(rice/wheat/cash crops) is dependent on the availability of ground water
from deep bore wells.
• Including grain legumes such as moong (Vigna radiata), urad (Vigna
mungo), and green manure (Sesbania) in cereal-based cropping systems to
increase farm profitability in dryland areas.
• Rice, fodder, and wheat cropping pattern
• Farming in fish ponds with a groundwater recharge system
• The solar-powered irrigation system is a technological solution that utilizes
solar energy to power the irrigation process.
• Citrus cultivation (Darwan, Rajgarh block, Mirzapur).
• Mustard is used as a border crop in wheat fields.
• Double cropping (Brinjal+ Wheat).
• Crop-livestock integrated farming.
• The practice of cultivating integrated floricultural crops, such as marigold,
alongside horticulture crops like papaya and jackfruit. Marigold, is produced
as a cover crop with the purpose of providing protection against plant-parasitic
nematodes, which is situated in the Rajgarh block of Mirzapur
• The utilization of deep bore wells and drip irrigation methods.
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• The cultivation of crops such as bananas, mangoes, and papayas in orchards,
along with the production of rice, wheat, tomatoes, mustard, maize, and gram.
• The cultivation of spices and flavoring crops such as fennel (Foeniculum
vulgare), Fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum),), and black cumin
(Nigella sativa) takes place in the farmlands located within the Vindhyan
zone.
• The cultivation of fruit-bearing plants such as mango, guava, Litchi sinensis,
and amla/Indian gooseberry, as well as timber-yielding trees like teak and
Moringa oleifera, is a prevalent agricultural practice.
• The cultivation of drought-tolerant crops such as chickpea and mustard, as
well as vegetables like bottle gourd, is being practiced in the Darwan region
of the Rajgarh block in Mirzapur.
• The practice of substituting chemical agroinputs and fertilizers with organic
alternatives, such as the use of farmyard manure (FYM) every other year, in
agricultural fields.
• The proposed project aims to facilitate the rehabilitation of a community farm
pond and the installation of a micro irrigation system, specifically drip or
sprinkler technology. It reduces the water required for farming by 50%.
• Vegetable gardening instead of producing low-yielding rice-wheat in drylands
with limited water resources.
• The utilization of rice straw as a mulching material in vegetable cultivation.
The location in question is Dadara, which is situated in the Rajgarh block of
Mirzapur.
• Integrating the cultivation of guava orchards with leguminous crops, namely
chickpeas, within expansive agricultural fields.
• Larger agricultural fields are surrounded by resilient, drought-tolerant
vegetation such as Carisa carandus and mango trees. These plants serve as a
protective barrier against herbivores due to their spines and bigger canopy,
respectively.
• The orchards groundcover management strategy involves the cultivation of
various fruit-bearing plants such as lemon, banana, mango, papaya, java plum,
and others within farm fields.
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1.2. Crop diversification for attaining UN-SDGs
Table 1.1. United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (UN-SDGs) Potentially Attainable through
Crop Diversification Practices
S. Sustainability Goals Type of Benefits Benefits of crop diversification
No. (UN-SDGs) practices
1. SDG 1 Social Ensuring universal access to food
No Poverty
2. SDG 2 Nutrition and A larger choice of production strategies
No Hunger Food Security could increase household meal diversity.
A nutritious diet boosts productivity and
reduction stability
3. SDG 5: Gender equality The diversification of agriculture has the
Gender potential to enhance the agency and
Equality empowerment of women engaged in
farming activities
4 SDG 8 Income and Certain policies improve economic
Good Job and employment stability, especially employment. The on-
Economic farm season can be extended to stabilize
Growth employment rates. This technique also
improves women's job prospects.
5 SDG 10 Employment This effort expands farm techniques,
Reduced giving farmers more options. It also
inequality fosters equal opportunity, giving all
farmers access to these practices.
6 SDG 12 Food Security Nutrition-food security relationship.
Sustainable Increased soil fertility and agricultural
consumption production are vital to food security. This
method also reduces agricultural
production price and uncertainty risks.
7 SDG 13 Climate change Reduced N2 fertilizer use reduces
Climate action mitigation and greenhouse gas emissions. Climate
adaptation change adaptation helps ecosystems and
societies cope with drought and water
scarcity. Smallholder farmers adapt to
technical changes in agriculture.
8 SDG 15 Environmental The conservation of biodiversity and
Life on Land Protection environmental services encompasses
various benefits, such as the prevention
of soil erosion and the enhancement of
nutrient uptake and cycling.
1.3. Farmer’s role in crop diversification
Farmers across the globe play a significant role in adapting agricultural practices to
cope with the effects of climate change and meet the increasing food demands of a
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rapidly growing human population (Yu et al. 2015). In the context of India, there exists
a lack of awareness among farmers regarding the potential consequences and risks that
may arise in the foreseeable future as a result of frequent unpredictable weather patterns
and environmental disturbances. Farmers engage in a practical form of experimentation
within their agricultural domains, employing adaptive strategies such as crop
diversification and resource conservation practices. These measures are implemented
to fulfill the dietary demands of the local population, meet market requirements, and
mitigate any potential fluctuations that may arise (Rosa-Schleich et al. 2019). In
response to environmental changes, individuals and communities implement practices
at the local level that require scaling up over time. The following are examples of
promising practices that illustrate the role and strategies employed by farmers to
address abnormalities in the production system.
1.4. Cover crops
Cover crops can be planted during winter or summer fallow periods to cover the soil
between two principal food crops. Cover crops become green manure when ploughed
into the soil. However, cover crops can be harvested for cattle feed. The literature links
cover crop cultivation to farmer ecological benefits. Cover crops provide
environmental variety and nesting and feeding resources. This boosts biodiversity
above and below ground (Dabney et al. 2001). This study analyzes how soil mulching
affects wheat and maize. Mulching boosts crop yields, water use efficiency, and
nitrogen use efficiency by 60%. Plastic mulching yields more maize than straw
mulching, especially in low temperatures. The opposite is true with straw mulching.
Mulching increases maize and wheat yields, water use efficiency, and nutrient use
efficiency. It reduces yield gaps, especially in dry places with low soil nutrient
availability, and requires site-specific data implementation (Qin et al. 2015). In areas
with enough water and nutrients, poor management can cause large wheat and maize
losses. Water and nutrient utilization, which protects 80% of cultivated area and
contributes 60% to crop yield, must be improved in rainfed agricultural systems to
feed the expanding global population. Soil fertility and water and nutrient shortages
often lower productivity in arid and semi-arid rain-fed agriculture systems. Straw and
plastic mulching techniques boost agricultural production, water and nitrogen
utilization. Previous research has examined mulching's benefits.
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1.5. Crop rotation
Expanded crop rotation can be defined as the practice of cultivating different crops on
the same land in a specific temporal order, thereby promoting temporal diversification.
During the process of conducting a literature search, we have come across a substantial
number of articles that discuss the ecological advantages associated with a particular
subject. However, we have found a limited number of articles that specifically address
the economic benefits at the farm level. Evidence suggests that the implementation of
a diversified crop rotation can yield significant benefits for farmers, primarily in terms
of increased long-term crop productivity, reduced input costs, and mitigated risks.
According to Venter et al. (2016), diverse crop rotations offer a 15% increase in
microbial richness and a 3.4% enhancement in microbial diversity, when compared to
a simple rotation. Several exemplary instances of implementing crop rotation practices
in agriculture are outlined below:
• One can utilize drought-tolerant cultivars such as sorghum and tubers.
• In arid regions, it is advisable to sow early-maturing plant varieties with short life
cycles at the onset of the initial rainfall.
• To optimize agricultural practices, it is recommended to employ minimum tillage
techniques, reduce plant density, and implement effective pest management
strategies.
• To improve agricultural water management, consider maintaining wells, building
small reservoirs for harvesting, distributing water to livestock, and cultivating
pasture and fodder crops.
• Offer mechanical support for water reservoir management and rainwater harvesting.
• Create community seed banks of hardy varieties.
• Develop good seed-storing practices.
• Implementing vegetable gardens for domestic consumption.
• Promote the adoption of water-conserving irrigation methods. The objective is to
undertake the restoration and enhancement of current water management systems.
• Promote and enhance community-based approaches to water management.
• Encourage the cultivation of drought-resistant agricultural crops, such as taro,
kumara, and cassava.
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• Provide drought-resistant and early-maturing crop varieties, taking into account the
specific site conditions and farming systems.
• The implementation of irrigation systems for the cultivation of grains and vegetables
is initiated.
• Distribute rainwater harvesting equipment for the purpose of cultivating plants in
residential backyard gardens.
1.6. Reduced Tillage
Reduced tillage practices encompass various techniques such as no-till, direct seeding,
and limited mechanical soil disturbance during soil cultivation. Several studies have
indicated that reduced tillage practices are associated with significant ecological
advantages for farmers. However, it is worth noting that only a limited number of
studies have acknowledged the presence of economic benefits at the farm level. The
primary dilemma associated with reduced tillage practices involves the balancing act
between weed management and the need for herbicide application.
1.6.1. Intercropping
Intercropping refers to the practice of cultivating multiple cultivars or crop species
simultaneously on the same field. This agricultural technique can be categorized into
three primary types: relay intercropping, mixed intercropping, and strip intercropping.
Multiple scholarly articles have examined the ecological advantages of intercropping
across these three types. However, there is a scarcity of literature that specifically
investigates the economic benefits derived from this practice known as diversified
farming. Evidence suggests that the primary challenge encountered in intercropping
systems is the significant demand for labor and the intricate nature of mechanization.
Intercropping involves the integration of a diverse assemblage of plant species, thereby
fostering an augmentation of above-ground biodiversity. The study conducted by
Letourneau et al. (2011) demonstrates that the presence of allied flowers in
intercropping fields leads to an increase in the diversity of natural enemies, resulting in
significantly reduced pest populations compared to monoculture systems.
1.6.2. Conservation Agriculture (CA)
Conservation Agriculture combines no or low tillage, cover crops or mulching, and crop
diversification or rotation. Conservation Agriculture is a complex and sustainable
farming method with several farm-level benefits. Conservation agriculture’s three
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principles work together to maximize each practice’s benefits. Weed management
appears to be Conservation Agriculture’s biggest challenge. Due to crop rotation and
cover crop variability, Conservation Agriculture increases soil fauna like centipedes,
termites, ants, and beetle larvae (Mafongoya et al. 2016). Many plant and animal
species have evolved on Earth, connecting themselves and their habitats. People often
don’t see people as part of the complex web of interconnectedness, seeing ourselves as
separate from nature and destiny to dominate. The “true” web of life includes bio-
cultural variety, the interdependence of biological forms in a landscape and civilization.
Luisa et al. (2017) define diversity as the multifaceted expression of life’s creative
potential and capacity in both the physical environment and societal structures. It gives
life on Earth energy and flexibility.
An assortment of agricultural strategies, such as cover crops, crop rotation, reduced
tillage, intercropping, and conservation agriculture, work together to form a balanced
and interconnected system within farming. This approach maximizes the efficiency of
land utilization, improves the quality of soil, and promotes the diversity of plant and
animal life both on the surface and underground. It embodies a comprehensive strategy
that enhances not just agricultural productivity but also fosters environmental
resilience. This technique employs crop rotation, reduced soil disturbance, and the
incorporation of natural processes to maintain the complex interdependence between
nature and mankind. It is a means to achieve agricultural sustainability, guaranteeing
the availability of food while maintaining the fragile equilibrium of our planet's
ecosystems and cultural variety.
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