Clauses are a group of words that includes a subject and a verb.

A clause is a feature of written English. In simple words, a clause is a

group of words that includes a subject and a verb.
Clauses make a sentence. They are groups of words that contain a subject
and a verb. They can be a main clause, coordinate clause or a subordinate
clause.
There are two types of clause:
An independent clause - a clause that can stand alone as a sentence.
A dependent clause - a clause that can't stand alone as a sentence, but
supports an independent clause.
An independent clause may also be called a main clause and a dependent
clause may be called a subordinate clause.
I graduated last year. (One clause sentence)
When I came here, I saw him. (Two clause sentence)
When I came here, I saw him, and he greeted me. (Three clause sentence)

A sentence is the largest unit of any language. In English, it begins with

a capital letter and ends with a full-stop, or a question mark, or
an exclamation mark.
The sentence is generally defined as a word or a group of words that
expresses a thorough idea by giving a statement/order, or asking a
question, or exclaiming.

English Sentence Structure

The following statements are true about sentences in English:
A new sentence begins with a capital letter.
He obtained his degree.
A sentence ends with punctuation (a period, a question mark, or an
exclamation point).
He obtained his degree.
A sentence contains a subject that is only given once.
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Smith he obtained his degree.
A sentence contains a verb or a verb phrase.
He obtained his degree.
A sentence follows Subject + Verb + Object word order.
He (subject) obtained (verb) his degree (object).
A sentence must have a complete idea that stands alone. This is also
called an independent clause.
He obtained his degree.
Simple Sentences
A simple sentence contains a subject and a verb, and it may also have an
object and modifiers. However, it contains only one independent clause.
Here are a few examples:
She wrote.
She completed her literature review.
He organized his sources by theme.
They studied APA rules for many hours.
Compound Sentences
A compound sentence contains at least two independent clauses. These
two independent clauses can be combined with a comma and
a coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.
Here are a few examples:
She completed her literature review, and she created her reference list.
He organized his sources by theme; then, he updated his reference list.
They studied APA rules for many hours, but they realized there was still
much to learn.
Complex Sentences
A complex sentence contains at least one independent clause and at least
one dependent clause.
Here are a few examples:
Although she completed her literature review, she still needed to work on her
methods section.
Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent
clause.
Because he organized his sources by theme, it was easier for his readers to follow.
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Note the comma in this sentence because it begins with a dependent
clause.
They studied APA rules for many hours as they were so interesting
Compound-Complex Sentences
Sentence types can also be combined. A compound-complex sentence
contains at least two independent clauses and at least one dependent
clause.
She completed her literature review, but she still needs to work on her methods
section even though she finished her methods course last semester.
Although he organized his sources by theme, he decided to arrange them
chronologically, and he carefully followed the MEAL plan for organization.
With pizza and soda at hand, they studied APA rules for many hours, and they
decided that writing in APA made sense because it was clear, concise, and objective.

There are four types of English sentence, classified by their purpose:

 Declarative sentence (statement)

 Interrogative sentence (question)

 Imperative sentence (command)

 Exclamative sentence (exclamation)

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Tense is defined as the form of verb that gives the relation between Time
and Action. Time is the duration of work and action is the work done.
Tense gives the time when the action is done.
There are three phases of time
 present (time that is now)
 past (time that has passed)
 future (time that is yet to come)
Let’s consider the sentences given below
 Hari eats a mango. (Present)
 Hari ate a mango (Past)
 Hari will eat a mango (Future)
We can observe that each sentence given above has a different meaning.
The reason is that each sentence has a different form of verb. These
different forms of verbs are called tenses. Then tense of a verb shows the
time of an action or the state of being.

There are three tenses

 Present Tense
 Past Tense
 Future Tense
Each tense is further divided into four forms. Study the table given below
to understand more about all tenses and their forms.

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 Present Indefinite Tense (Also Called Simple Present Tense)
This tense is used in the following ways
i) To express habitual action, habit or custom.
Examples:
a) I watch television on Sunday.
b) She gets up every morning at 6 o’clock
c) He walks in the evening
d) My shop opens at 9 o’clock
e) I do exercise every morning
ii) To talk about a general or universal truth.
Examples:
a) Earth revolves around the Sun.
b) The Sun rises in the East
c) The Sun sets in the West
d) Two and two makes four
e) Honesty is the best policy
iii) To indicate a future event which is part of a plan or arrangement.
Examples:
a) The school reopens next week
b) The examination commences next month.
iv) To introduce quotes with the verb ‘says’.
Examples:
a) Newton says, “Every action has an equal and an opposite reaction.”
b) Keats says, “A thing of beauty is a joy forever.”
v) Vivid narration, as a substitute for the simple past.
Example:
Ravana fights bravely but he is killed in the end.
vi) Exclamatory sentences that begin with here or there.

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Examples:
a) Here you go!
b) There he goes!
vii) Time clauses and conditional clauses in place of simple future.
Examples:
a) If you do not earn money, you will not buy the house.
b) If you do not work hard, you will fail.
Rules for Affirmative Sentences
 Singular subject + first form of verb + s/es + ……………
 Plural subject + first form of verb + …………….
Examples:
a) They play cricket in the ground.
b) She cooks food in the evening.
c) Water boils at 100°C
d) We study in ABC institution.
e) She advises me not to smoke
Rules of Negative Sentences
 Singular subject + does not + first form of verb + ……………….
 Plural subject + do not + first form of verb + …………………..
Examples:
a) Reena does not watch television.
b) We do not smoke
c) She does not write a letter to her friend.
d) They do not like swim.
Rules for Interrogative Sentences
 Do/does + subject + first form of verb + ………..?
 Question word + do/does + subject + first form of verb + ……?
Examples:
a) Do you play cricket?
b) Does she wash clothes?
c) Does he not go to school daily?
d) Why do you weep now?
e) Whose book do you read?

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f) Whom do you teach?
g) Which subject does Garima not want to study?
h) Who teaches you English?
i) Why do you not complete your homework?

Present Continuous Tense

This tense is used in the following ways
i) To describe an action in progress and the continuity of the action.
Examples:
a) She is playing tennis.
b) We are watering the plants.
c) The passengers are wandering to and fro.
ii) An action that is not happening at the time of speaking but is in
progress.
Examples:
a) He is working in an MNC.
b) I am teaching in a school.
c) They are studying in DN College.
iii) An action that has been pre-arranged to take place in the near future.
Examples:
a) The wedding is going to take place on Sunday.
b) I am going to attend the class tomorrow.
iv) Persistent and undesirable habit, especially with adverbs like always,
continually, constantly etc.
Examples:
a) You are always running me down.
b) He is constantly gazing at me.
Rules for Affirmative Sentences
 Singular subject + is/am + first form of verb + ing + ……………
 Plural subject + are + first form of verb + ing + ……………………
Examples:
a) I am playing a game.

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b) She is reading a book
c) We are going to Shimla
Rules for Negative Sentences
 Singular subject + is/am + not + first form of verb + ing + …………..
 Plural subject + are + not + first form of verb + ing + …………….
Examples:
a) Ram is not surfing the internet
b) They are not watching a movie
c) I am not swimming in the water.
Rules for Interrogative Sentences
 is/are/am + subject + first form of verb + ing + …………?
 Question word + is/are/am + subject + first form of verb + ing +
………?
Examples:
a) Is Reena cooking the food?
b) Are you not writing a letter?
c) What is Raveena doing here?
d) Which newspaper are you buying?
e) Why was the camel not drinking water?
Exceptions for Present Continuous Tense
The following verbs are not normally used in present continuous tense on
account of their meaning:
Verbs of perception or sense, e.g. see, hear, smell, notice, recognise, etc.
Verbs of appearance, e.g. appear, look, seem etc.
Verbs of thinking e.g. think, suppose, believe, agree, consider, forget,
know, imagine, mean etc.
Verbs of emotion, e.g. want, wish, desire, feel, love, prefer etc.
have, own, possess, be (except when used in the passive)

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 Present Perfect Tense
This tense is used in the following ways
i) To express an action that has recently been completed.
Examples:
a) She has just taken tea.
b) I have purchased a book.
c) They have won the match.
d) He has come now.
ii) To describe an action whose time is not given.
Examples:
a) Have you done MSc in Math?
b) Have you read Shakespeare?
iii) To describe past events whose effect still exists.
Examples:
I have finished my work and now I am free.
iv) To describe actions that started in the past and are continuing until
now and possibly will continue into the future.
Example:
I have already used this brand of soap.
v) To show how a past situation relates to the present.
Example:
I’ve done my homework, so I can help you with yours now.
Rules of Affirmative Sentences
 Singular subject + has + third form of verb + …………..
 Plural subject + have + third form of verb + ……….
Examples:
a) She has gone to the market.
b) I have met her.
c) They have bathed.
d) It has become dark now.
Rules of Negative Sentences
 Singular subject + has + not + third form of verb + ………
 Plural subject + have + not + third form of verb + ………..

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Examples:
a) I have not called him.
b) The train has not gone.
Rules for Interrogative Sentences
 Has/have + subject + third form of verb + …..?
 Question word + has/have + subject + third form of verb + …….?
Examples:
a) Has she gone to Delhi?
b) Have they not seen the Taj Mahal yet?
c) What have they eaten today?
d) Why has the poem not come yet?

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 Present Perfect Continuous Tense
This tense is also called Present Progressive Tense.
This tense is used in the following ways:
i) To describe an action that began in the past and is still continuing.
Examples:
a) They have been staying in the village for a long time.
b) It has been raining since last night.
ii) To express an action already completed, but whose effect is still
continuing.
Examples
I have been running around for the job all day and am now tired.
Rules for Affirmative Sentences
 Singular subject + has + been + first form of verb + ing + ……. +
for/since + ……….
 Plural subject + have + been + first form of verb + ing + ……. +
for/since + ……….
Examples:
a) Arpit has been sleeping since 6 o’clock.
b) They have been running for three hours.
Rules for Negative Sentences
 Singular subject + has + not + been + first form of verb + ing + …….
+ for/since + ……….
 Plural subject + have + not + been + first form of verb + ing + ……. +
for/since + ……….
Examples:
a) You have not been suffering from fever for one week.
b) Reena has not been going to music class for 2 months..
Rules for Interrogative Sentences
Has/Have + subject + been + first form of verb + ing + ……… + since/for
+ …….?
Question word + has/have + subject + been + first form of verb + ing +
……… + since/for + …….?

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Examples:
a) Have you been sleeping since 8 o’clock?
b) Has he not been living in this house for a long time?
c) Why have they been playing football since morning?

We use for with a period of time in the past, present or future.

We use since with a point in time in the past.

Since
We use ‘since’ in front of a finished point in time in the past. For
example:
since June
since 10:30
since last Tuesday
We normally use ‘since’ with the present perfect to describe an action
or situation that began in the past and continues in the present.

For example:
We’ve been married since 1995.
I’ve worked here since 2008.
She’s lived in New York since 2014.
They’ve been here since 4pm.
You’ve had that cold since last month!
He’s taken part in four conference calls since 9:30.
We can also use ‘since’ with a past action (which is similar to
referring to a finished time). In this case it is often preceded by ‘ever’.
For example:
They’ve argued ever since they came back from their honeymoon.

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Since I met Astrid I’ve tried to learn German.
It’s been ages since we went to the sea on holiday.
You’ve been complaining ever since you arrived!
He’s had a car since he started working.
It hasn’t rained since we reopened the school.
For
We use ‘for’ with a period of time. For example:
for two years
for eight hours
for a long time
We can also use ‘for’ with the present perfect to describe an action
that started in the past and continues in the present.

For example:
We’ve been married for 22 years.
I’ve had this car for three months.
She’s worked there for ten years.
They’ve lived here for 40 years.
He’s played with that toy for hours.
It hasn’t snowed for years.
But we can also use ‘for’ with other verb tenses. For example:
We’re staying in the mountains for 10 days. (present continuous)
She lived in Japan for three years. (simple past)
I’ll be at reception for a few minutes. (simple future)
They normally study for an hour then have a break. (present simple)
In December we’ll have been married for 25 years! (future perfect)
.

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FOR SINCE
a period a point from then to now
from start to end They’ve lived in
Oxford since 2004.

>===< x===>|

for 20 minutes since 9am

for three days since Monday
for 6 months since January
for 4 years since 1997
for 2 centuries since 1500
for a long time since I left school
for ever since the beginning of time

all tenses perfect tenses

He lived in Oxford for 3 years and

then he moved. (completed past)
They’ve lived in Oxford for a couple
of months. (began in the past and For refers to periods of time,
continues into the present) e.g. 3 years, 4 hours, ages, a
We’re going to stay in long time, months, years.
Oxford for three days and then
we’re going to London for a
day. (future plans)

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