DC VOLTAGE AND CURRENT MEASUREMENT

Principles and Types of Analogue and Digital Voltmeters

 Electrical indicating instruments are divided into two types.
i. Analog instruments: - its output is the deflection of pointer, which is proportional to its input.
ii. Digital Instruments: - its output is in decimal form.
 Action of all ammeters and voltmeters, with the exception of electrostatic type of instruments,
depends upon a deflecting torque produced by an electric current.
 Thus all analog voltmeters and ammeters are essentially current measuring devices.

The essential requirements of a measuring instrument are

i. That its introduction into the circuit, where measurements are to be made, does not alter the
circuit conditions
ii. The power consumed by them for their operation is small.

Advantages of digital meters over analogue meters

i. More accurate than analog multimeters.
ii. Reduce reading and interpolation errors.
iii. 'auto-polarity' function can prevent problems from connecting the meter to a test circuit with the
wrong polarity.
iv. Parallax errors are eliminated, A digital multimeter's numerical display solves this problem
v.Digital multimeter displays have no moving parts making them free from wear and shock failures.
vi. Reading speed is increased as it is easier to read.
vii. Unlike analog multimeters, zero adjustment is not required.
viii. Digital output is suitable for further processing or recording and can be useful in a rapidly
increasing range of computer controlled applications.
ix. With the advent of Integrated circuits, the size, cost and power requirements of digital
multimeters has been drastically reduced.
x. Accuracy is increased due to digital readout. A mistake can be made in reading the scale in
analog multimeter, but digital multimeters have a LCD display to show accurate reading.
xi. DMMs can be used in testing continuity, capacitors, diodes and transistors. More advanced
digital multimeters can also measure frequency.
xii. The 'auto-ranging' feature of a digital multimeter helps in selecting different measurement
ranges, which can prevent damage to the meter if the wrong range is selected.
xiii. Portable size makes it easy to carry anywhere.
xiv. They cause less meter loading effects on the circuits being tested.
xv. Some advanced digital multimeters have microprocessors and can store the readings for further
processing.
xvi. They have very high input impedance.

Disadvantages of Digital Multimeters (DMM)

i. The LCD display depends on a battery or external power source. When the battery is low, the
display will be dim, making it difficult to read.
ii. In case of fluctuations or transients, it can record an error.
iii. Warming of the meter during its use can change its properties leading to errors in measured
value.
iv. The A/D converter has a limitation on word length which can cause quantization noise giving
rise to error in measured value.
v. There is a voltage limitation. If it is increased beyond the limit, the meter will be damaged.
vi. The digital nature makes it unsuitable for adjusting tuning circuits or peaking tunable
responses.
vii. They are expensive due to high manufacturing cost.
Advantage of Permanent Magnet Moving Coil (PMMC) instrument
i. Uniform scale.
ii. Very effective eddy current damping
iii. Power consumption is low.
iv. No hysteresis loss.
v. They are not affected by stray field.
vi. Require small operating current.
vii. Accurate and reliable.

Disadvantage of PMMC instrument

i. Only used for D.C measurement.
ii. Costlier compared to moving iron instrument.
iii. Some errors are caused due to the aging of the control springs and the permanent magnets.

Errors in moving iron instrument

i. Hysteresis error: Due to hysteresis effect, the flux density for the same current while
ascending and descending values is different. While descending, the flux density is higher and
while ascending it is lesser. So meter reads higher for descending values of current or voltage.
So remedy for this is to use smaller iron parts which can demagnetize quickly or to work with
lower flux densities.
ii. Temperature error: The temperature error arises due to the effect of temperature on the
temperature coefficient of the spring. This error is of the order of 0.02 % per 0C change in
temperature. Errors can be due to self-heating of the coil lead to change in resistance of the
coil. So the coil and series resistance must have low temperature coefficient. Hence mangnin is
generally used for the series resistance.
iii. Stray magnetic Field Error: The operating magnetic field in case of moving iron instruments
is very low. Hence effect of external stray magnetic field can cause error. This effect depends
on the direction of the stray magnetic field with respect to the operating field of the instrument.
iv. Frequency Error: These are related to a.c. operation of the instrument. The change in
frequency affects the reactance of the working coil and also affects the magnitude of the eddy
currents.
v. Eddy Current Error: When instrument is used for a.c. measurements the eddy currents are
produced in the iron parts of the instrument. The eddy current affects the instrument current
causing the change in the deflection torque. As eddy current are frequency dependent,
frequency changes cause eddy current error.

Analog Meters: Galvanometers

 Analog meters have a needle that swivels to point at numbers on a scale, as opposed to digital
meters, which have numerical readouts similar to a hand-held calculator.
 Galvanometer: The heart of most analog meters is denoted by G. Current flow through a
galvanometer, it produces a proportional needle deflection due to the force of a magnetic field
upon a current-carrying wire. This movement of coil is called D'Arsonval movement and basic
meter is called D'Arsonval galvanometer
 Two crucial characteristics: are its resistance and current sensitivity. Current sensitivity is
the current that gives a full-scale deflection of the galvanometer’s needle, the maximum
current that the instrument can measure.

Galvanometer as an Ammeter:
 can also be made into an ammeter by placing it in parallel with a small resistance R, often
called the shunt resistance, Since the shunt resistance is small, most of the current passes
through it, allowing the meter to measure currents much greater than those producing a full-
scale deflection of the galvanometer
Current I gets split into Ishunt and IG . Shunt also reduces resistance of the ammeter:

The shunt resistance can be calculated as:

Let R m = internal resistance of coil
R sh = shunt resistance
Im = fullscale deflection current
Ish = shunt current
I = total current
Now I = Ish + Im
As the two resistances 𝑅𝑠ℎ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑅𝑚 are in parallel, the voltage drop across them is same.
∴ Ish R sh = Im R m
I R
∴ R sh = mI m
sh
But Ish = I − Im
I m Rm
∴ R sh = (I−I )m
𝐑𝐦 𝐈
∴ 𝐑 𝐬𝐡 = 𝐦−𝐈 Where m = 𝐈
𝐦
The m is called multiplying power of the shunt and defined as the ratio of total current to the current
through the coil. It can be expressed as,
𝐈 𝐑𝐦
𝐦 = =𝟏+
𝐈𝐦 𝐑 𝐬𝐡

Examples:
1. What shunt resistance is required for an ammeter to have a resistance of 10 mΩ, if the galvanometer
resistance is 60 Ω?

1 1 1
= +
𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝐺 𝑅𝑆
1 1 1
= −
𝑅𝑆 𝑅𝐴 𝑅𝑆
𝑅𝐺 𝑅𝐴 (60)(.01)
𝑅𝑆 = 𝑅 = = 0.1000166 ≅ 0.010Ω
𝐺 −𝑅𝐴 60−.01
2.
3. An ammeter is needed that gives a full-scale deflection for 1.0 A, and contains the same 25-Ω
galvanometer with its 50-μA sensitivity. Since Rs and RG are in parallel, the voltage across them is
the same. These IRs drops are IRs=IGRG so that IRs=IGI =RsRG,
Solving for RS: IG = 50 μA, I = 1- 0.00005 =0.999950 A,
 RS =RGIGI
= (25Ω) 50 μA0.999950 A
=0.0012499Ω = 1.2499mΩ =1.25x 10-3Ω

4. A 2mA meter with an internal resistance of 100Ω is to be converted to 0 −150𝑚𝐴 ammeter.

Calculate the value of the shunt Resistance required.
Solution: Given values are,
𝑅𝑚 = 100Ω, 𝐼𝑚 = 2𝑚𝐴, 𝐼 = 150𝑚𝐴
𝐼𝑚 𝑅𝑚
𝑅𝑠ℎ = 𝐼−𝐼
𝑚
2×10−3 ×100
∴ 𝑅𝑠ℎ = [150×10−3 −2×10−3 ]
= 1.35135Ω ≅ 1.351Ω

Loading Effect of ammeter on circuit

To measure current, connect ammeter in series
 Any ammeter has some resistance r
𝐕
 Current in presence of ammeter is 𝐈 =
𝐑 +𝐫
𝐕
 Current without the ammeter would be 𝐈 = 𝐑
To minimize an error, ammeter resistance r must be very small. ( Ideal ammeter would zero resistance)

Example:
5. An ammeter of resistance 10 mΩ is used to measure the current through a 10 Ω resistor in series
with a 3 V battery that has an internal resistance of 0.5 Ω. What is the relative (percent) error
caused by the ammeter?

(a) Without ammeter (b) with ammeter

𝐕
Actual current without ammeter: 𝐈 = 𝐑+𝐫
𝟑
= 𝟏𝟎+𝟎.𝟓 = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕𝟏𝟒𝐀 ≅ 𝟐𝟖𝟓. 𝟕𝟏𝟒𝐦𝐀
𝐕
Curent with ammeter: 𝐈 = 𝐑+𝐫+ 𝐑
𝐀

𝟑
𝐈= = 𝟎. 𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟓𝟒𝟒𝐀 ≅ 𝟐𝟖𝟓. 𝟒𝟒𝐦𝐀
𝟏𝟎Ω + 𝟎. 𝟓Ω + 𝟎. 𝟎𝟏Ω
Relative percentage error
𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞 −𝐦𝐞𝐚𝐬𝐮𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
% 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐚𝐜𝐭𝐮𝐚𝐥 𝐯𝐚𝐥𝐮𝐞
𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕−𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟒𝟒
= × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 =0.1%
𝟎.𝟐𝟖𝟓𝟕

Galvanometer as a Voltmeter
Voltmeter can be made from galvanometer connected in series with a large resistance
 ∴ V = Im (R m + R s )
V = Im R m + Im R s
Im R s =V−Im R m
V
Rs = − Rm
Im
Example
6. A moving coil instrument gives a full scale deflection with a current of 40µA, while the internal
resistance of the meter is 500Ω. It is to be usesd as a voltmeter to measure a voltage range of 0
– 10V.calculate the multiplier resistance needed.
Solution
Given values:- Rm = 500Ω ,Im = 40µA ,V = 10V
𝑉
𝑅𝑠 = 𝐼 − 𝑅𝑚
𝑚
10𝑉
= 40 𝑋10−6 − 500Ω = 249500Ω ≅ 249.5kΩ
This is the required multiplier resistance

LOADING EFFECTS OF VOLTMETER ON CIRCUIT

 A voltmeter when used to measure voltage across a circuit component the voltmeter circuit is
in parallel with circuit component.
 The parallel combination of two resistors is less than either resistor alone thus the resistance
seen by the source is less with the voltmeter connected than without. Thus voltage across the
component is less whenever the voltmeter is connected.
 Voltmeter loading: The decrease in voltage may be negligible or it may be appreciable
depending on the sensitivity of the voltmeter being used and the resulting error is called a
loading error.
 To measure voltage in a circuit connect voltmeter in parallel voltmeter

• Voltmeter has some resistance RV

• Current IV flows through voltmeter
• Extra current changes voltage drop across r and thus Vab
Examples:
7. A galvanometer of resistance 60Ω is used to measure the voltage drop across a 10kΩ resistor in
series with an ideal 6V battery and a 5kΩ resistor. What is the relative error caused by the
nonzero resistance of the galvanometer?
Solution:

Actual voltage drop without instrument:

𝑽
Req = R1 + R2 I=𝑹 ∴ 𝑽𝒂𝒃 = 𝑰𝑹
𝒆𝒒
𝟔𝒗
= 10KΩ + 5KΩ = 𝟏𝟓 ×𝟏𝟎𝟑 = (0.4 X10-3 A)(10 X 103Ω)
= 15KΩ = 15 X103Ω = 0.4 x 10-3A = 4V
The measurement is made by use of galvanometer
RG R1
Total parallel Resistance Rpar =
RG +R1
60𝑋 10000 600000
= = = 59.642Ω
60+10000 10060
Total equivalent restsnce Req = Rpar + R2
= 59.642 + 5000
= 5059.642 = 5059.6Ω
V 6V
Total current I = R =
par 5059.6Ω
= 0.0011858A = 1.1858mA = 1.19mA = 1.19 x 10-3A
∴ Vab = V – 𝐼𝑅2
= 6V −1.19 × 10−3 𝐴 × 5000Ω = 6 −5.929 = 0.071 𝑉
The relative error is:
Change in measurement
% 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = × 100
Expectected Value
Expexted value= 4𝑉; Vab = 0.07V
𝟒−𝟎.𝟎𝟕
∴ %𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟗𝟖%
𝟒
Example
8. A voltmeter of resistance 100 kΩ is used to measure the voltage drop across a 10 kΩ resistor in
series with an ideal 6 V battery and a 5 kΩ resistor. What is the percent error caused by the
nonzero resistance of the voltmeter?

Vab = IR = (0.4 X10-3)(10 X 103) = 4V

The measurement has now been improved with the voltmeter
R1 = 10kΩ; R2=5kΩ: Rv= 100kΩ
𝑅 𝑅
Total parallel resistance Rpar = 𝑅 𝑉+𝑅1
𝑉 1
= 100000 𝑋 10000
= 9090.909 = 9090.91Ω
100000+10000
Total equivalent Resistance Req = Rpar + R2
= 9090.91 + 5000 = 14090.91Ω
𝑉 6𝑉
Total current I = 𝑅 = = 0.000425806𝐴 = 0.425806𝑚𝐴 ≅ 0.426𝑚𝐴
𝑒𝑞 1409.91
Voltgae drop Vab = V – IR2
= 6 – (4.26 x10-4)(5000) = 3.8709V = 3.87V
The relative error is:
Change in measurement
% 𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = × 100
Expectected Value
Expexted value= 4𝑉; Vab = 0.07V
𝟒−𝟑.𝟖𝟕
∴ %𝐄𝐫𝐫𝐨𝐫 = × 𝟏𝟎𝟎 = 𝟑. 𝟐𝟓%
𝟒

9. A voltmeter having a sensitvity of 1.5kΩ/volt reads 80V on its 150V range,when connected
across an unknown resistor in series with a milliameter 15mA.Calculate:
i. Apparent resistance
ii. Actual resistance of unknown resistor
iii. Error due to loading effetc of voltmeter
iv. Percentage accuracy
Solution
Circuit diagram

Total circuit resistance,neglecting milliamater resistance

𝑉 80𝑉
RT = = −3
= 5,333.33Ω =5.333kΩ
𝐼 15𝑋 10 𝐴
(i) The apparent value of the resistance is
Rapp = 5.333kΩ

(ii) Actual resistance RX

Voltmeter resistsnce RV = sensisisty x fullscale reading
= 1.5kΩ/volt x 150 225kΩ
Thus RT = RX// RV
𝑅 𝑅
∴ 𝑅𝑇 = 𝑅 𝑋+𝑅𝑉
𝑋 𝑉
𝑅𝑋 ×225
∴ 5.333 = 𝑅
𝑋 +225
5.333(RX + 225) = RX X 225
5.333RX + 1199.925 = 225RX
1199.925 = 219.667RX
RX = 5.4624

(iii) Error due to voltmeter loading

𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆−𝒂𝒑𝒑𝒂𝒓𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒓𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒕𝒂𝒏𝒄𝒆
% error = 𝒂𝒄𝒕𝒖𝒂𝒍 𝒓𝒆𝒊𝒔𝒊𝒔𝒕𝒏𝒄𝒆
× 100% A
5.462 −5.333
= 5.462 × 100 = 𝟐. 𝟑𝟔%
(iv) percentage relative accuracy
Relative accuracy = 1 – error magnitude
= 1- 0.0236 = 0.9763
 Thus % relative accuracy = 0.9763 x 100 = 97 .63%

Multirange ammeter
The range of the basic D.C. ammeter may be extended by using number of shunts and a selector
switch. Such an ammeter is called multirange ammeter. The Aryton shunt is used

Example
10. Design a multirange D.C milliammeter with a basic meter having a resistance 75Ω and full-
scale deflection for the current of 2mA. The required ranges are: 0 – 10mA, 0 – 50mA and 0 –
100mA.
Solution
(i) The first range 0 – 10mA
I1 = 10mA, Im = 2mA, Rm = 75Ω
I R 2mA ×75
R1 = I m−Im = 10mA−2mA = 𝟏𝟖. 𝟕𝟓Ω
1 m

(ii) The second range 0 – 50mA

I2 = 50mA, Im = 2mA, Rm = 75Ω
I R 2mA ×75
R 2 = I m−Im = 50mA−2mA = 𝟑. 𝟏𝟐𝟓Ω
2 m

(iii) The third range 0 – 100mA

I3 = 1000mA, Im = 2mA, Rm = 75Ω
I R 2mA ×75
R 3 = I m−Im = 100mA−2mA = 𝟏. 𝟓𝟑Ω
3 m

Designed multirange ammeter

Multirange voltmeters:
The range of the basic D.C. voltmeter may be extended by use of a number of multipliers and a
selector switch. Such a meter is called multirange voltmeter
  R1, R2, R3 and R4 are the four series multipliers and When connected in series with the meter,
different voltage ranges as V1, V2, V3 and V4 are obtained.
 Selector switch S is a multiposition switch by which the required multiplier can be selected in
the circuit such that:

Example
11. A basic D’Arsnoval movement with an internal resistance of 50Ω and full scale deflection
current of 2mA is to be used as a multirange voltmeter. Design the series string of multipliers to
obtain the voltage ranges of 0 -10V, 0- 50V, 0 – 100V and 0 – 500V

Solution
For meter Rm = 50Ω; Im = 2mA
(i) For position V4 = 10V: the series multiplier is R4
𝑽
As in RS = 𝑰 − 𝑹𝒎
𝒎
𝑽𝟒 𝟏𝟎
Then 𝑹𝟒 = 𝑰 − 𝑹𝒎 = 𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 − 𝟓𝟎
𝒎
= 5,000 – 50
R4 = 4950Ω = 4.95kΩ

(ii) For position V3 = 50V: the series multiplier is (R4 + R3)

𝑽
As in RS = 𝑰 − 𝑹𝒎
𝒎
𝑽𝟑
Thus R3 = 𝑰 − 𝑹𝒎 − 𝑹𝟒
𝒎
𝟓𝟎
Then 𝑹𝟑 = 𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 − 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟒𝟗𝟓𝟎
= 25,000 – 50 – 4950
R3 = 20,000Ω = 20kΩ

(iii) For position V2 = 100V: the series multiplier is (R4 + R3 + R2)

𝑽
As in RS = 𝑰 − 𝑹𝒎
𝒎
 𝑽
Thus R2 = 𝑰 𝟐 − 𝑹𝒎 − 𝑹𝟒 − 𝑹𝟑
𝒎
𝟏𝟎𝟎
Then 𝑹𝟐 = 𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 − 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟒, 𝟗𝟓𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 50,000 – 50 – 4950 – 20,000
R2 = 25,000Ω = 25kΩ

(iv) For position V1 = 500V: the series multiplier is (R4 + R3 + R2 + R1)

𝑽
As in RS = 𝑰 − 𝑹𝒎
𝒎
𝑽𝟏
Thus R1 = 𝑰 − 𝑹𝒎 − 𝑹𝟒 − 𝑹𝟑 − 𝑹𝟐
𝒎
𝟓𝟎𝟎
Then 𝑹𝟏 = 𝟐 ×𝟏𝟎−𝟑 − 𝟓𝟎 − 𝟒, 𝟗𝟓𝟎 − 𝟐𝟎, 𝟎𝟎𝟎 − 𝟐𝟓, 𝟎𝟎𝟎
= 250,000 – 50 – 4950 – 20,000 -25,000
R2 = 200,000Ω = 200kΩ
Therefore: - R1, R2, R3 & R4 forms a series string of multipliers
POINTS TO NOTE:
 A voltmeter is an instrument used for measuring electrical potential difference between two
points in an electric circuit.
 An ammeter is a measuring device used to measure the electric current in a circuit.
 A voltmeter is connected in parallel with a device to measure its voltage, while an ammeter is
connected in series with a device to measure its current.
 At the heart of most analog meters is a galvanometer, an instrument that measures current flow
using the movement, or deflection, of a needle. The needle deflection is produced by a
magnetic force acting on a current-carrying wire.
 shunt resistance: a small resistance R placed in parallel with a galvanometer G to produce an
ammeter; the larger the current to be measured, the smaller R must be; most of the current
flowing through the meter is shunted through R to protect the galvanometer
 galvanometer: An analog measuring device, denoted by G, that measures current flow using a
needle deflection caused by a magnetic field force acting upon a current-carrying wire.