LISA

Week 2
Visual Variables and Cartographic Design

2.1 Introduction to Visual Variables

At the heart of effective geovisualization lies the intelligent use of visual variables the building
blocks of map design. These variables define how geographic data are symbolized on a map and
are essential in helping users perceive, interpret, and interact with spatial information. The concept
of visual variables was introduced by Jacques Bertin in his seminal work Sémiologie Graphique
(1967), which established a visual grammar for data representation. Bertin identified a set of
fundamental graphical elements that can be manipulated to represent spatial attributes visually.

The primary goal of visual variables is to enhance communication between the mapmaker and the
map user. These variables help encode information such as magnitude, category, direction, or time,
and influence how users understand patterns and relationships within the data.

Understanding how to apply visual variables correctly is a critical skill in cartography and
geovisualization. Poor use of these elements can mislead viewers or obscure meaningful spatial
trends, while effective design can make complex information instantly clear.

2.2 Types of Visual Variables

Bertin originally proposed seven visual variables, which have since been expanded upon by
modern cartographers and visualization experts. These variables are: position, size, shape, value
(lightness), color hue, orientation, and texture. Some contemporary sources also include
variables such as transparency, motion, and arrangement, particularly for digital and interactive
visualizations.

Each visual variable serves different purposes and is better suited to representing specific types of
data, nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio. Let us now examine each variable in detail.

Position

Position refers to the location of symbols in two-dimensional or three-dimensional space. It is the

Size

Size denotes the relative magnitude of a symbol. It is commonly used to show quantitative values,
such as population, rainfall, or income. Larger symbols indicate higher values, while smaller
symbols represent lower values. Size is particularly effective in proportional symbol maps.
However, it must be used carefully to avoid perceptual bias; humans often underestimate small
differences in area, especially in circles.

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Shape

Shape is useful for distinguishing between different categories of nominal data. For example,
squares might represent schools, while circles represent hospitals. Shapes are not interpreted
hierarchically and therefore are not suitable for ordinal or quantitative data. Too many shapes in
one visualization can confuse viewers, so shape variation should be kept to a minimum and used
only for clear categorical distinctions.

Value (Lightness)

Value refers to the lightness or darkness of a color. This variable is especially effective for
representing ordered data, such as income classes or pollution levels. Darker shades often suggest
greater intensity or magnitude, whereas lighter shades suggest lower values. Grayscale maps rely
exclusively on value differences and are often used in printed publications where color is not
available.

Color Hue

Color hue distinguishes between different types of data using the spectrum of visible colors (e.g.,
red, green, blue). Hue is effective for displaying qualitative (nominal) data categories. For
example, a land use map might use red for residential areas, green for parks, and yellow for
industrial zones. However, hue should not be used to show ordered or ranked data, as humans do
not perceive the order of hues consistently.

Orientation

Orientation refers to the angle or direction in which a symbol is placed. It is typically used for
representing directional phenomena such as wind direction or geological faults. Because
orientation is hard to perceive at small scales or with many overlapping symbols, it should be used
sparingly and in conjunction with other variables.

Texture (Pattern Density)

Texture involves the visual "feel" of a symbol, such as dotted or striped patterns. It can be useful
for representing different land covers or geological types. Texture is more commonly used in older
maps or when color printing is not available. However, in digital geovisualization, texture has
largely been replaced by color and shading techniques.

Additional Digital Variables

Modern geovisualization, especially in digital platforms, makes use of additional variables like
transparency, which allows the layering of multiple datasets; motion, for animations and
dynamic temporal maps; and interactivity, allowing users to click, hover, and explore data in non-
linear ways. These variables add dimensions that were not possible in static maps and greatly
enhance data exploration and communication.

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2.3 Data Types and Their Visual Matching

Effective geovisualization depends on matching the correct visual variable with the correct type
of data. There are four main data types commonly encountered in cartography and GIS:

• Nominal data consist of categories without any inherent order (e.g., land use types,
countries).
• Ordinal data involve ranked categories (e.g., levels of risk: low, medium, high).
• Interval data are numerical values without a true zero (e.g., temperature in Celsius).
• Ratio data have meaningful zero points and support full arithmetic operations (e.g.,
population, rainfall).

For nominal data, variables like shape and hue are most appropriate. Ordinal data are best
represented using value (lightness) or texture density. Interval and ratio data benefit from size,
value, and position. Misapplying visual variables can result in visual confusion or
misinterpretation, so cartographic designers must always consider the nature of the data they are
mapping.

2.4 Principles of Cartographic Design

Cartographic design is the process of applying visual variables and layout strategies to produce
effective maps. Good design enhances communication, supports analysis, and respects aesthetic
balance.

Several principles guide the cartographic design process. These include:

Clarity, which ensures that all map elements are legible and logically arranged; balance, which
relates to the visual symmetry and weight of map elements; and contrast, which uses visual
differences to emphasize important features and support readability.

Hierarchy is another key principle—it guides the viewer’s eye to the most important information
first. This can be achieved through size, boldness, color intensity, or positioning. For example, a
national capital may be shown with a larger, darker symbol than smaller towns.

Simplicity is essential in avoiding clutter. Maps should not contain unnecessary detail that may
distract from the central message. Every element on the map should serve a purpose, whether
informative or functional.

Lastly, visual harmony must be maintained. Even when using multiple visual variables, the
overall design should feel coherent, consistent, and intuitive. Maps that are jarring, cluttered, or
overly complex can alienate users or lead to misinterpretation.

2.5 Cartographic Elements and Layout

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A well-designed map consists of several essential components. The map body is the main area
where the geographic data is displayed. It must be central, scaled correctly, and clearly represent
the spatial context of interest.

A legend explains the symbols, colors, and scales used in the map. It must be placed in a non-
obtrusive location and be easy to interpret. The title gives context to the map’s purpose and should
be descriptive yet concise. Scale bars, north arrows, and graticules provide spatial reference and
orientation.

The data source and author information lend credibility and transparency to the map. In
academic or professional contexts, this is essential to ensure reproducibility and to acknowledge
data providers.

The map layout integrates all these elements into a single composition. It should guide the viewer
smoothly from one element to the next while maintaining a logical flow. The use of white space,
color balance, and alignment are all important considerations in this process.

2.6 Color Theory in Cartography

Color is perhaps the most powerful visual variable but also the most easily misused. Cartographers
must be aware of color theory, which includes concepts such as hue, saturation, and value. The
ColorBrewer tool is widely used to generate color schemes that are perceptually accurate and
suitable for colorblind users.

There are three primary types of color schemes used in maps. Qualitative color schemes are used
for categorical data and feature distinct hues with similar intensity. Sequential schemes are used
for ordered data and feature gradual changes in lightness, often from light to dark. Diverging color
schemes are suitable for data with a meaningful central value, such as temperature anomalies
above and below average. These schemes show two contrasting hues fading into a neutral
midpoint.

Color selection should also consider cultural associations. For example, red might signify danger
or loss in some contexts but celebration in others. Therefore, the intended audience and subject
matter must influence color choices.

2.7 Map Critique and Evaluation

Evaluating the quality and effectiveness of a map involves asking several questions: Is the map
readable and visually appealing? Does it accurately represent the data without distortion? Are the
visual variables appropriate for the type of data? Is the layout clean, balanced, and logically
organized?

Students should be trained to critically assess both their own work and that of others. This includes
identifying problems like misleading symbology, inappropriate scales, color conflicts, or excessive
complexity. Such critiques help refine the cartographic process and build professional visual
communication skills.

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2.8 Summary

This week’s exploration of visual variables and cartographic design lays the foundation for all
subsequent geovisualization work. Understanding how data are represented visually, and how
design choices affect interpretation, is fundamental to creating effective, reliable, and aesthetically
pleasing maps. In the upcoming weeks we will begin applying these principles to real-world data
using software tools, building thematic, interactive, and animated visualizations that rely heavily
on the visual grammar established in this lesson.

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