EPM 321 RESEARCH METHODS IN EDUCATION

CHAPTER TWO

CATEGORIES OF RESEARCH/CLASSIFICATION OF RESEARCH

Basic research

It is basic approach which is for the sake of knowledge.

Basic researches involve the development of theory. It is not concerned with practical

applicability and most closely resembles the laboratory conditions and controls usually

associated with scientific research.

It is concerned with establishing general principles of learning. For example, much basic

research has been conducted with animals to determine principles of reinforcement and their

effect on learning.

Like the experiment of skinner on cats gave the principle of conditioning and reinforcement.

According to Travers, basic research is designed to add to an organized body of scientific

knowledge and does not necessarily produce results of immediate practical value.

Basic research is primarily concerned with the formulation of the theory or a contribution to the

existing body of knowledge. Its major aim is to obtain and use the empirical data to formulate,

expand or evaluate theory.

This type of research draws its pattern and spirit from the physical sciences. It represents a

rigorous and structured type of analysis. It employs careful sampling procedures in order to

extend the findings beyond the group or situations and thus develops theories by discovering

proved generalizations or principles.

knowledge. Another system for classification is sometimes used for the research dealing with

“who” types of questions. This classification is based on goal or objective of the research. The

first type of research, which has its aim obtaining the empirical data that can be used to

formulate, expand or evaluate theory is called basic research.

This type of study is not oriented in design or purpose towards the solution of practical problem.

Its essential aim is to expand the frontiers of knowledge without regard to practical application.

Of course, the findings may eventually apply to practical problems that have social value. For

example, advances in the practice of medicine are dependent upon basic research in biochemistry

and microbiology.

Likewise, progress in educational practices has been related to progress in the discovery of

general laws through psychological, educational, sociological research.

Applied research

The second type of research which aims to solve an immediate practical problem, is referred to

as applied research. According to Travers, ―applied research is undertaken to solve an

immediate practical problem and the goal of adding to scientific knowledge is secondary.

It is research performed in relation to actual problems and under the conditions in which they

are found in practice. Through applied research, educators are often able to solve their problems

at the appropriate level of complexity, that is, in the classroom teaching learning situations. We

may depend upon basic research for the discovery of more general laws of learning, but applied

research much is conducted in order to determine how these laws operate in the classroom.
This approach is essential if scientific changes in teaching practice are to be effected. Unless

educators undertake to solve their own practical problems of this type no one else will. It should

be pointed out that applied research also uses the scientific method of enquiry. We find that there

is not always a sharp line of demarcation between basic and applied research. Certainly

applications are made from theory to help in the solution of practical problems. We attempt to

apply the theories of learning in the classroom. On the other hand, basic research may depend

upon the findings of the applied research to complete its theoretical formulations. A classroom

learning experiment can throw some light on the learning theory. Furthermore, observations in

the practical situations serve to test theories and may lead to the formulation of new theories.

Most educational research studies are classified at the applied end of the continuum; they are

more concerned with ―what‖ works best than with ―why‖. For example, applied research tests

the principle of reinforcement to determine their effectiveness in improving learning (e.g.

programmed instruction) and behaviour (e.g. behaviour modification). Most educational research

is applied research, for it attempts to develop generalizations about teaching – learning processes

and instructional materials.

The applied researcher may also be employed in a university or research institute or may be

found in private industry or working for a government agency. In the field of education such a

person might be employed by a curriculum publishing company, a state department of education,

or a college of education at a university. Applied researches are also found in the settings in

which the application or practitioner‘s role is primary. This is where the teachers, clinical

psychologists, school psychologists, social workers physicians, civil engineers, managers,

advertising specialists and so on are found.

• Basic research provides the theory that produces the concepts for applied research for

solving specific problems.

• Applied research provides the data to support, help, guide, and revise the development theory

resulted from basic research.

• Doing basic research ensures that applied researchers don’t need to reinvent the wheel every

time they start on a new project as it lays a readymade groundwork.

Educational research can be classified into different types. These classifications may depend on

the goals, methods of investigation, kind of evidence and analysis used. These classifications are:

On the Basis of Goal

If we classify educational researches based on the goals of the particular investigation and the

use to be made of it, then we will have basic research and applied research.

(a) Basic Research

This is a type of research, otherwise called pure research which is concerned with obtaining

empirical data that can be used to formulate, expand or evaluate theory. Its main aim is to extend

the frontiers of knowledge with no regards to the practical application. It investigates

relationships between methods, personal characteristics, environmental variables and learning

efficiency in order to develop, illustrate, test and expand theories of learning. It is not oriented in

design or purpose towards the solution of practical problems. But the findings of such studies

may be applied to practical problems that have social values.

This is the application of theories and principles from basic research to solve educational

problems. It is a research performed in relation to actual problems which occur in the field and

under the conditions in which they are found in practice. It is aimed at solving immediate

practical problems. The findings help educators to make rational practical decisions about

specific problems. Applied research can be divided into three sub-categories:

(i) Action Research

This is undertaken by educational practitioners in order to solve their practical local problems. It

is aimed at developing new skills, finding new answers or approaches to solve problems of

current concern. It is practical and directly relevant to an actual life situation. It is empirical and

relies on actual observation and realistic information, or data rather than subjective opinions or

past experiences.

(ii) Evaluation Research

This is used to assess educational programmes in order to improve their efficiency by making

necessary revisions or modifications. For instance, a systemic evaluation of the practice of some

programmes in the school system may necessitate modifications in the requirements and policies

of the education ministry. Again, the change over from one system of education to another may

have been based on systemic evaluation.

Example, the change from 7-4-2-3 to 8-4-4 and from 8-4-4 to 2-6-3-3 3 system may have been

based on the evaluation research by practitioners.

According to Nkpa (1997), this is concerned with developing and testing curricula, methods and

materials to ensure maximum efficiency of educational products and practices. The trial testing

in schools of the New curriculum materials by KICD and Adaptation of the new system of

education in Kenya is an example.

On the Basis of Method of Investigation

Classifying educational research based on the methods of investigation used, the following types

of educational research may be distinguished:-

(a) Experimental Research

In this type of research, independent variables are manipulated to observe the effects on the

dependent variables. It serves to determine possible outcomes given certain conditions. There are

two groups – experimental or treatment group and the control group. The experimental group

receives the treatment while the control group may not receive any treatment. The difference is

noted and used.

(b) Ex Post Facto Research

Have you noticed a research study in which the researcher attempts to conduct experimental

study in which he is not able to directly manipulate the independent variables? In fact,

randomisation is not possible. The subjects may be grouped on the basis of some naturally

occurring characteristics. Such variables like sex, race, intelligence, aptitude, creativity,

personality, socio-economic status, etc. cannot be directly manipulated. Sometimes, this type of

research is referred to as causal comparative studies.

This is concerned with either description or interpretation of existing relationships, attitudes,

practices, processes, trends, etc. or the comparison of variables. It does not make attempts to

manipulate variables. It may be divided into many categories. Prominent among them are:

(i) Surveys

In this type of research, a number of data-gathering psychometric tools and procedures are used.

These include questionnaires, tests, checklists, rating scales, score cards, inventories, interviews,

etc. The study can be used to ascertain the nature of a phenomenon from a relatively large

number of cases. When you study the entire target population, the survey is called census. Most

of the times, the entire population is too large to be handled. In this case, you have to use

appropriate sampling technique to obtain a truly representative sample. You will learn about the

sampling techniques later in this course. You have to note that representativeness of sample is

critical to survey research, in order to make reliable inferences about the target population.

(ii) Documentary Analysis

In this type, documents and records are examined for relevant information. Official gazettes,

minutes of meetings, reports of panels and blueprints can be examined. Content analysis of

curriculum materials and classroom lessons can be included as documentary analysis.

(iii) Case Studies

You may decide to investigate a detailed account of individuals or aggregations of individual

cases may be treated as units under this type of study. In other words, you may decide to study a

phenomenon in one school, association, organisation, agency, one student, teacher,

administrator, etc. in order to solve specific problems through in-depth study.

This is a past oriented research; which involves the location, documentation, evaluation and

interpretation of available evidence in order to understand past events. Understanding past events

may lead you to greater understanding of present and future events. It may also prevent future

pitfalls, or even suggest hypotheses which should be used for the solution of existing problems.

Its focus may be on social concerns, educational practices, educational institutions or the

educators

themselves. In historical research, evidence from relics, artefacts, documents, records, oral

accounts etc. are usually relied on. If you are undertaking a historical research in education, then

your evidence may be sought from attendance registers, certificates, report cards, inventories,

manuscripts, equipment, records of news talk, etc.

There are two main sources of research information in a historical study. These are primary

source and secondary source. When evidence comes from direct source such as original

documents, photographs, eye-witness accounts, it is called primary source. But when a non-

observer mediates

between the original evidence and the investigator as in books, research reviews, newspapers or

stories by non-participants, it is called secondary source. As a researcher, you should always

determine the authenticity of the evidence you use.

Using this typology, research can be classified as quantitative, qualitative or multiple

perspective.

(a) Quantitative Research

This type uses information or data expressed in numerical values. Most experimental studies fall

under this type or category. Data collection methods include tests of various types, experiments,

questionnaire, rating scales etc. Quantitative data are analysed using either descriptive or

inferential statistics.

(b) Qualitative Research

This type uses information which is verbal or non-numerical. It makes use of qualitative data

yielded through interviews, observations, artifacts, and documentary sources, audio and visual

materials among others. Information could be analysed using transcription, coding, historical and

philosophical analysis. This can introduce elements of subjectivity in explaining, describing,

collecting and even analyzing information.

(c) Multiple Perspective Research

This type uses both quantitative and qualitative approach otherwise known as eclectic, is usually

more comprehensive, yielding more generalisable and holistic findings which are more rigorous

than any one approach.