E X P E R I M E N T 1

Experimental Uncertainty (Error)

and Data Analysis

INTRODUCTION AND OBJECTIVES error and data analysis that may be used in subsequent
experiments.
Laboratory investigations involve taking measurements of
After performing the experiment and analyzing the
physical quantities, and the process of taking any measure-
data, you should be able to do the following:
ment always involves some experimental uncertainty or
error.* Suppose you and another person independently took 1. Categorize the types of experimental uncertainty
several measurements of the length of an object. It is highly (error), and explain how they may be reduced.
unlikely that you both would come up with exactly the same 2. Distinguish between measurement accuracy and pre-
results. Or you may be experimentally verifying the value of cision, and understand how they may be improved
a known quantity and want to express uncertainty, perhaps experimentally.
on a graph. Therefore, questions such as the following arise: 3. Define the term least count and explain the meaning
and importance of significant figures (or digits) in
• Whose data are better, or how does one express
reporting measurement values.
the degree of uncertainty or error in experimental
4. Express experimental results and uncertainty in appro-
measurements?
priate numerical values so that someone reading your
• How do you compare an experimental result with an
report will have an estimate of the reliability of the data.
accepted value?
5. Represent measurement data in graphical form so
• How does one graphically analyze and report
as to illustrate experimental data and uncertainty
­experimental data?
visually.
In this experiment, types of experimental uncer- *Although experimental uncertainty is more descriptive, the term error
tainties will be examined, along with some methods of is commonly used synonymously.

EQUIPMENT NEEDED • Pencil and ruler

• Hand calculator
• Rod or other linear object less than 1 m in length
• 3 sheets of Cartesian graph paper
• Four-meter-long measuring sticks with calibrations
• French curve (optional)
of meter, decimeter, centimeter, and millimeter,
respectively† †
A four-sided meterstick with calibrations on each side is commercially
available from PASCO Scientific.

THEORY large; –, too small) of the error in any individual measure-

ment. ­Conditions in which random errors can result include:
A. Types of Experimental Uncertainty
1. Unpredictable fluctuations in temperature or line
Experimental uncertainty (error) generally can be
voltage.
­classified as being of two types: (1) random or statistical
2. Mechanical vibrations of an experimental setup.
error and (2) systematic error. Let’s take a closer look at
3. Unbiased estimates of measurement readings by the
each type of experimental uncertainty.
observer.
Random or Statistical Error Repeated measurements with random errors give slightly
Random errors result from unknown and unpredictable vari- different values each time. The effect of random errors
ations that arise in all experimental measurement situations. may be reduced and minimized by improving and refining
There is no way to determine the magnitude or sign (1, too experimental techniques.
13
    EXPERIMENT 1 / Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis

Systematic Errors scale division. Reading a value from a measurement

Systematic errors are associated with particular measure- scale generally involves aligning a mark on the scale.
ment instruments or techniques, such as an improperly The alignment—and hence the value of the reading—can
calibrated instrument or bias on the part of the observer. depend on the position of the eye (parallax). Examples of
The term systematic implies that the same magnitude and such personal systematic error are shown in ● Fig. 1.2.
sign of experimental uncertainty are obtained when the
Avoiding systematic errors depends on the skill of the
measurement is repeated several times. The magnitude and
observer to recognize the sources of such errors and to
sign of the uncertainty can be determined if the error is
­prevent or correct them.
identified. Conditions from which systematic errors can
result include
B. Accuracy and Precision
1. An improperly “zeroed” instrument, for example, an
Accuracy and precision are commonly used synonymously,
ammeter as shown in ● Fig. 1.1.
but in experimental measurements there is an important
2. A faulty instrument, such as a thermometer that reads
distinction. The accuracy of a measurement signifies how
101 °C when immersed in boiling water at standard
close it comes to the true (or accepted) value—that is, how
atmospheric pressure. This thermometer is faulty
nearly correct it is.
because the reading should be 100 °C.
3. Personal error, such as using a wrong constant in
­calculation or always taking a high or low reading of a

(a) Temperature measurement

Figure 1.1 Systematic error. An improperly zeroed (b) Length measurement

instrument gives rise to systematic error. The Figure 2.2 Personal error. Examples of personal error
ammeter, which measures electric current, has positive due to parallax in reading (a) a thermometer and (b) a
nonzero read-ing with no current through it. This would meterstick. (Parallax is the apparent displacement of a
systematically give an incorrect reading larger that the point or mark due to a change in position of the observer.)
true value. (After correcting the error by zeroing the Readings may systematically be made either too high or
meter, which scale would you read when using the too low.
ammeter?) (© Cengage Learning)
     3

(a) Good precision, but poor accuracy (b) Poor precision and poor accuracy (c) Good precision and good accuracy

Figure 1.3 Accuracy and precision. The true value in this analogy is the bull’s eye. The degree of scattering is an indication
of precision—the closer together a dart grouping, the greater the precision. A group (or symmetric grouping with an average)
close to the true value represents accuracy.

In reporting experimentally measured values, it is

Example 1.1 Two independent measurement important to read instruments correctly. The degree of
results using the diameter d and circumference c of a uncertainty of a number read from a measurement instru-
circle in the determination of the value of p are 3.140 ment depends on the quality of the instrument and the fine-
and 3.143. (Recall that p 5 c/d.) The second result ness of its measuring scale. When reading the value from a
is more accurate (more nearly correct) than the first calibrated scale, only a certain number of figures or digits
because the true value of p, to four figures, is 3.142. can properly be obtained or read. That is, only a certain
number of figures are significant.
Precision refers to the agreement among repeated This depends on the least count of the instrument scale,
measurements—that is, the “spread” of the measurements which is the smallest subdivision on the measurement scale.
or how close they are together. The more precise a group This is the unit of the smallest reading that can be made
of measurements, the closer together they are. However, a without estimating. For example, the least count of a meter-
large degree of precision does not necessarily imply accu- stick is usually the millimeter (mm). We commonly say “the
racy, as illustrated in ● Fig. 1.3. meterstick is calibrated in centimeters (numbered major
divisions) with a millimeter least count.” (See ● Fig. 1.4.)
The significant figures (sometimes called signifi-
Example 1.2 Two independent experiments give cant digits) of a measured value include all the numbers
two sets of data with the expressed results and uncer- that can be read directly from the instrument scale, plus
tainties of 2.5  0.1 cm and 2.5  0.2 cm, respectively. one doubtful or estimated number—the fractional part of
The first result is more precise than the second the least count smallest division. For example, the
because the spread in the first set of measurements length of the rod in Fig. 1.4 (as measured from the zero
is between 2.4 cm and 2.6 cm, whereas the spread in end) is 2.64 cm. The rod’s length is known to be
the second set of measurements is between 2.3 cm between 2.6 cm and 2.7 cm. The estimated fraction is
and 2.7 cm. That is, the measurements of the first ex- taken to be 4/10 of
periment are less uncertain than those of the second.

Rod
Note: Obtaining greater accuracy for an experimental
value depends in general on minimizing systematic errors.
Obtaining greater precision for an experimental value
depends on minimizing random errors.

C. Least Count and Significant Figures

In general, there are exact numbers and measured numbers (or
quantities). Factors such as the 100 used in calculating percent-
age and the 2 in 2pr are exact numbers. Measured numbers, Figure 1.4 Least count. Metersticks are commonly calibrated
as the name implies, are those obtained from measurement in centimeters (cm), the numbered major divisions, with
instruments and generally involve some error or uncertainty. a least count, or smallest subdivision, of millimeters (mm).
16   EXPERIMENT 1 / Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis

the least count (mm), so the doubtful figure is 4, giving the m­ athematical operations—for example, multiplication
2.64 cm with three significant figures. or division. That is, errors are carried through to the results
Thus, measured values contain inherent uncertainty or by the mathematical operations.
doubtfulness because of the estimated figure. However, the The error can be better expressed by statistical meth-
greater the number of significant figures, the greater the ods; however, a widely used procedure for estimating the
reliability of the measurement the number represents. For uncertainty of a mathematical result involves the use of
example, the length of an object may be read as 3.65 cm significant figures.
(three significant figures) on one instrument scale and as The number of significant figures in a measured value
3.5605 cm (five significant figures) on another. The latter gives an indication of the uncertainty or reliability of a
reading is from an instrument with a finer scale (why?) and measurement. Hence, you might expect that the result of
gives more information and reliability. a mathematical operation can be no more reliable than
Zeros and the decimal point must be properly dealt the quantity with the least reliability, or smallest num-
with in determining the number of significant figures in ber of significant figures, used in the calculation. That
a result. For example, how many significant figures does is, reliability cannot be gained through a mathematical
0.0543 m have? What about 209.4 m and 2705.0 m? In operation.
such cases, the following rules are generally used to deter- It is important to report the results of mathematical
mine significance: operations with the proper number of significant figures.
This is accomplished by using rules for (1) multiplication
1. Zeros at the beginning of a number are not significant.
and division and (2) addition and subtraction. To obtain
They merely locate the decimal point. For example,
the proper number of significant figures, one rounds off

0.0543 m has three significant figures (5, 4, and 3). the results. The general rules used for mathematical opera-
tions and rounding follow.
2. Zeros within a number are significant. For example,

209.4 m has four significant figures (2, 0, 9, and 4). Significant Figures in Calculations
3. Zeros at the end of a number after the decimal point 1. When multiplying and dividing quantities, leave as
are significant. For example, many significant figures in the answer as there are in
the quantity with the least number of significant figures.

2705.0 has five significant figures (2, 7, 0, 5, and 0). 2. When adding or subtracting quantities, leave the same
Some confusion may arise with whole numbers that number of decimal places (rounded) in the answer
have one or more zeros at the end without a decimal point. as there are in the quantity with the least number of
Consider, for example, 300 kg, where the zeros (called ­decimal places.
trailing zeros) may or may not be significant. In such
cases, it is not clear which zeros serve only to locate the Rules for Rounding*
decimal point and which are actually part of the measure- 1. If the first digit to be dropped is less than 5, leave the
ment (and hence significant). That is, if the first zero from preceding digit as is.
the left (300 kg) is the estimated digit in the measurement, 2. If the first digit to be dropped is 5 or greater, increase
then only two digits are reliably known, and there are only the preceding digit by one.
two significant figures. Notice that in this method, five digits (0, 1, 2, 3, and
Similarly, if the last zero is the estimated digit (300 kg), 4) are rounded down and five digits (5, 6, 7, 8, and 9) are
then there are three significant figures. This ambiguity is rounded up.
be removed by using scientific (powers of 10) notation: These rules come into play frequently when doing
3.0 3 102 kg has two significant figures. mathematical operations with a hand calculator that may
give a string of digits. ● Fig. 1.5 shows the result of the
3.00 3 102 kg has three significant figures. division of 374 by 29. The result must be rounded off to
This procedure is also helpful in expressing the two significant figures—that is, to 13. (Why?)
significant figures in large numbers. For example, sup-
pose that the average distance from Earth to the Sun,
93,000,000 miles, is known to only four significant fig- Example 2.3 Applying the rules.
ures. This is easily expressed in powers of 10 notation: Multiplication:
9.300 3 107 mi.
2.5 m 3 1.308 m 5 3.27 m2 5 3.3 m2
(2 sf ) (4 sf ) (2 sf )
D. Computations with Measured Values
*It should be noted that these rounding rules give an approximation of
Calculations are often performed with measured values or accuracy, as opposed to the results provided by more advanced statistical
numbers, and any error or uncertainty is “propagated” by methods.
     17

The accepted or “true” value of such a quantity

found in textbooks and physics handbooks is the most
accurate value (usually rounded off to a certain number of
significant figures) obtained through sophisticated experi-
ments or mathematical methods.
The absolute difference between the experimen-
tal value E and the accepted value A, written 0 E 2 A 0 ,
is the positive difference in the values, for example,
0 2 2 4 0 5 0 22 0 5 2 and 0 4 2 2 0 5 2 . Simply subtract
the smaller value from the larger, and take the result as
positive. For a set of measurements, E is taken as the aver-
age value of the experimental measurements.
When an accepted value of a physical quantity is
known, the percent error is calculated for a comparison
of an experimental value with the accepted value. P ­ ercent
error is given by the ratio of the absolute difference
between the experimental value E and the accepted value A
over the accepted value, expressed as a percent.*

absolute difference
Percent error 5 3 100%
accepted value

Figure 2.5 Insignificant figures. The calculator shows the or

result of the division operation 374/29. Because there are
only two significant figures in the 29, a reported result should
have no more than two significant figures, and the calculator 0E 2 A0
display value should be rounded off to 13. (© Jerry D. Wilson) Percent error 5 3 100% (1.1)
A

Division:
(4 sf )
Example 2.4 A cylindrical object is measured to
882.0 s have a diameter d of 5.25 cm and a circumference
5 3600 s 5 3.60 3 103 s c of 16.38 cm. What are the experimental value of p
0.245
(3 sf ) (represented to three and the percent error of the experimental value if the
significant figures; why?) accepted value of p to two decimal places is 3.14?

Addition: Solution with d 5 5.25 cm and c 5 16.38 cm,

46.4
1.37 c 16.38 cm
0.505 c 5 pd or p 5 5 5 3.12
d 5.25 cm
48.275 48.3
(rounding off ) Then E 5 3.12 and A 5 3.14, so
(46.4 has the least number of decimal places)
0E 2 A0
Subtraction: Percent error 5 3 100%
A
163
0 3.12 2 3.14 0
24.5 5 3 100%
3.14
158.5 S 159
(rounding off) 0.020
(163 has the least number of decimal places, none) 5 3 100% 5 0.64%
3.14

E. Expressing Experimental Error and Uncertainty

*It should be noted that percent error only gives a measure of experi-
Percent Error mental error or uncertainty when the accepted or standard value is highly
accurate. If an accepted value itself has a large degree of uncertainty,
The object of some experiments is to determine the value of a then the percent error does not give a good measure of experimental
well-known physical quantity—for example, the value of p. uncertainty.

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18   experiment 2 / Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis

Note: To avoid rounding errors, the preferred order of In many instances there will be more than two mea-
­operations is addition and subtraction before multiplica- surement values.
tion and division.*
When there are three or more measurements, the per-
cent difference is found by dividing the absolute value
of the difference of the extreme values (that is, the val-
If the uncertainty in experimentally measured values
ues with greatest difference) by the average or mean
as expressed by the percent error is large, you should check
value of all the measurements.
for possible sources of error. If found, additional measure-
ments should then be made to reduce the uncertainty. Your
instructor may wish to set a maximum percent error for Average (Mean) Value
experimental results. Most experimental measurements are repeated several
times, and it is very unlikely that identical results will be
Percent Difference obtained for all trials. For a set of measurements with pre-
It is sometimes instructive to compare the results of two dominantly random errors (that is, the measurements are
measurements when there is no known or accepted value. all equally trustworthy or probable), it can be shown math-
The comparison is expressed as a percent difference, ematically that the true value is most probably given by
which is the ratio of the absolute difference between the the average or mean value.
experimental values E2 and E1 and the average or mean The average or mean value x of a set of N measure-
value of the two results, expressed as a percent. ments is

x1 1 x2 1 x3 1 c1 xN
5 a xi
absolute difference 1 N
Percent difference 5 3 100% x5 (2.3)
average N N i51
or
where the summation sign S is a shorthand notation indi-
cating the sum of N measurements from x1 to xN. ( x is com-
0 E2 2 E1 0 monly referred to simply as the mean.)
Percent difference 5 3 100% (2.2)
(E2 1 E1)/2

Dividing by the average or mean value of the experi-

mental values is logical, because there is no way of decid- Example 2.6 What is the average or mean value of
ing which of the two results is better. the set of numbers 5.42, 6.18, 5.70, 6.01, and 6.32?

a xi
1 N
Example 2.5 What is the percent difference between x5
N i51
two measured values of 4.60 cm and 5.00 cm?
5.42 1 6.18 1 5.70 1 6.01 1 6.32
Solution With E1 5 4.60 cm and E2 5 5.00 cm, 5
5
5 5.93
0 E2 2 E1 0
Percent difference 5 3 100%
(E2 1 E1)/2 There are other, more advanced methods to express the
dispersion or precision of sets of measurements. Two of
0 5.00 2 4.60 0 these are given in the appendices. Appendix C: “Abso-
Percent difference 5 3 100% lute Deviation from the Mean and Mean Absolute Devia-
(5.00 1 4.60)/2
tion,” and Appendix D: “Standard Deviation and Method
0.40 of Least Squares.”
5 3 100% 5 8.0%
4.80
F. Graphical Representation of Data
It is often convenient to represent experimental data in
As in the case of percent error, when the percent difference graphical form, not only for reporting but also to obtain
is large, it is advisable to check the experiment for errors information.
and possibly make more measurements.

*Although percent error is generally defined using the absolute d­ ifference Graphing Procedures
|E 2 A|, some instructors prefer to use (E 2 A), which results in positive Quantities are commonly plotted using rectangular
(1) or negative (2) percent errors, for example, 20.64% in Example 2.4.
In the case of a series of measurements and computed percent errors, this
­Cartesian axes (X and Y ). The horizontal axis (X) is called
gives an indication of systematic error. the abscissa, and the vertical axis (Y ), the ordinate. The

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 experiment 2 / Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis    19

location of a point on the graph is defined by its coordi- Table 2.1 Data for Figure 2.7
nates x and y, written (x, y), referenced to the origin O, the
Mass (kg) Period (s)  d
intersection of the X and Y axes.
It is customary to say that y is plotted versus x, which 0.025 1.9  0.40
indicates that in the mathematical relationship, y is a function 0.050 2.7  0.30
of x; for example, y 5 mx 1 b, that is, the value of y depends 0.10 3.8  0.25
on that of x. 0.15 4.6  0.28
When plotting data, choose axis scales that are easy to 0.20 5.4  0.18
plot and read. The graph in ● Fig. 2.6A, a plot of force (F) 0.25 6.0  0.15
versus displacement (x), shows an example of scales that are
too small. This “bunches up” the data, making the graph too
small, and the major horizontal scale values make it ­difficult graph in Fig. 2.6B with an approximately equal number
to read intermediate values. Also, the dots or data points of points on each side of the line gives a “line of best fit.”†
should not be connected. Choose scales so that most of the In cases where several determinations of each experimen-
graph paper is used. The graph in ● Fig. 2.6B shows data tal quantity are made, the average value is plotted and the mean
plotted with more appropriate scales.* deviation or the standard deviation may be ­plotted as error
Also note in Fig. 2.6A that scale units on the axes are bars. For example, the data for the period of a mass oscillating
not given. For example, you don’t know the units of force on a spring given in Table 2.1 are plotted in ● Fig. 2.7, period
or whether the units of displacement are feet, meters, kilo- (T) versus mass (m). (The d is the mean deviation, shown here
meters, or whatever. Scale units should always be included, for an illustration of error bars. See Appendix C.)* A smooth
as in Fig. 2.6B. It is also acceptable, and saves time, to use line is drawn so as to pass within the error bars. (Your instruc-
standard unit abbreviations, such as N for newton and m tor may want to explain the use of a French curve at this point.)
for meter. This will be done on subsequent graphs. Graphs should have the following elements (see Fig. 2.7):
With the data points plotted, draw a smooth line
described by the data points. Smooth means that the line 1. Each axis labeled with the quantity plotted.
does not have to pass exactly through each point but 2. The units of the quantities plotted.
­c onnects the general areas of significance of the data 3. The title of the graph on the graph paper (commonly
points (not connecting the data points as in Fig. 2.6A). The listed as the y-coordinate versus the x-coordinate).
4. Your name and the date.

Linear (Straight-Line) Graphs

2.0 Two quantities (x and y) are often linearly related; that is, there
is an algebraic relationship of the form y 5 mx 1 b, where m
and b are constants. When the values of such quantities are
plotted, the graph is a straight line, as shown in ● Fig. 2.8.
The m in the algebraic relationship is called the slope
1.5 of the line and is equal to the ratio of the intervals Dy/Dx.
Any set of intervals may be used to determine the slope of
a straight-line graph; for example, in Fig. 2.8,
Force F

Dy1 15 cm
m5 5 5 7.5 cm/s
1.0 Dx1 2.0 s
Dy2 45 cm
m5 5 5 7.5 cm/s
Dx2 6.0 s

Points should be chosen relatively far apart on the line. For

best results, points corresponding to data points should not
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 be chosen, even if they appear to lie on the line.
Displacement x

Figure 2.6A Poor graphing. An example of an improperly †The straight line of “best fit” for a set of data points on a graph can be de-
termined by a statistical procedure called linear regression, using what is
labeled and plotted graph. See text for description. known as the method of least squares. This method determines the best-fitting
straight line by means of differential calculus, which is beyond the scope of
this manual. The resulting equations are given in Appendix D, along with the
*As a general rule, it is convenient to choose the unit of the first major procedure for determining the slope and i­ntercept of a best-fitting straight line.
scale division to the right or above the origin or zero point as 1, 2, or 5 *The mean deviation and standard deviation are discussed in Appendix C
(or multiples or submultiples thereof, for example, 10 or 0.1) so that the and D, respectively. They give an indication of the dispersion of a set of
minor (intermediate) scale divisions can be easily interpolated and read. ­measured values. These methods are optional at your instructor’s discretion.

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20   experiment 2 / Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis

Force (F ) versus displacement (x ) of a spring

3.5

3.0

2.5
Force (N)

2.0

1.5

1.0

0.50

Name Jane Doe

Date Sept. 21, 2016

0 0.10 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60

Displacement (m)
Figure 2.6B Proper graphing. An example of a properly labeled and plotted graph. See text for description.

The b in the algebraic relationship is called the The equation of the line in the graph in Fig. 2.8 is d 5
y-­intercept and is equal to the value of the y-coordinate 7.5t 1 3.0. The general equation for uniform motion has the
where the graph line intercepts the Y-axis. In Fig. 2.8, form d 5 vt 1 do. Hence, the initial displacement do 5 3.0 cm
b 53.0 cm. Notice from the relationship that y 5 mx 1 and the speed v 5 7.5 cm/s.
b, so that when x 5 0, then y 5 b. If the intercept is at the Some forms of nonlinear functions that are ­common
origin (0, 0), then b 5 0. in physics can be represented as straight lines on a

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 experiment 2 / Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis    21

Period (T ) of spring oscillation

versus mass (m ) suspended on a spring
6.0

5.0

4.0
Period (S)

3.0

2.0

1.0

Name Jane Doe

Date October. 15, 2016

0 0.025 0.050 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 3.0

Mass (kg)
Figure 2.7 Error bars. An example of graphically presented data with error bars. An error bar indicates the precision of a
measurement. In this case, the error bars represent mean deviations.

­Cartesian graph. This is done by plotting nonlinear v­ alues. That is, square all the values of x in the data table, and plot
For ­example, if these numbers with the corresponding y values.
Other functions can be “straightened out” by this pro-
y 5 ax2 1 b cedure, including an exponential function:
is plotted on a regular y-versus-x graph, a parabola would y 5 Aeax
be obtained. But if x2 5 x' were used, the equation becomes In this case, taking the natural logarithm of both sides:
y 5 ax' 5 b ln y 5 ln A 1 ln eax
or
which has the form of a linear graph, or straight line. ln y 5 ax 1 ln A
This means plotting y versus x' would give a straight
line. Since x' 5 x2, the squared values of x must be plotted. (where ln ex 5 x)

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22   experiment 2 / Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis

90

Displacement (d) vs time (t) for uniform motion

80

70

Δy2 = 85 − 40 = 45 cm

60
Displacement (cm)

Δy 45
Slope = = = 7.5 cm/s
Δx 6.0
50

40 Δx2

Δx2 = 11.0 − 5.0 = 6.0 s

30

20
Δy1 = 25 − 10 = 15 cm

Δy 15
Slope = = = 7.5 cm/s
Δx 2.0
10 Δx1

Δx1 = 3.0 − 1.0 = 2.0 s

0 2.0 4.0 6.0 8.0 10.0

Time (s)
Figure 2.8 Linear (straight-line) slope. Examples of intervals for determining the slope of a straight line. The slope is the ratio of
Dy/Dx (or Dd/Dt). Any set of intervals may be used, but the endpoints of an interval should be relatively far apart, as
for Dy2/Dx2.

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 experiment 2 / Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis    23

Plotting the values of the natural (base e) logarithm versus (where log xn 5 n log x).
x gives a straight line with slope a and an intercept ln A. Plotting the values of log y versus log x gives a straight
Similarly, for line with slope n and intercept log a. (See Appendix E.)

y 5 axn
EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
using the common (base 10) logarithm, Complete the exercises in the Laboratory Report, s­ howing
n calculations and attaching graphs as required. (Note: In
log y 5 log a 1 log x
this experiment and throughout, attach an additional sheet
and for calculations if necessary.)

log y 5 n log x 1 log a

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Name Section Date
Lab Partner(s)

E X P E R I M E N T 1

Experimental Uncertainty (Error)

and Data Analysis
Laboratory Report

1. Least Counts
(a) Given meter-length sticks calibrated in meters, decimeters, centimeters, and millimeters,
respectively. Use the sticks to measure the length of the object provided and record with
the appropriate number of significant figures in Data Table 1.

Data Table 1
Purpose: To express least counts and measurements.

Object Length
m dm cm mm

Actual length
(Provided by instructor after measurements)
Comments on the measurements in terms of least counts:

(b) Find the percent errors for the four measurements in Data Table 1.

Data Table 2
Purpose: To express the percent errors.

% Error
m dm cm mm

Comments on the percent error results:

2. Significant Figures
(a) Express the numbers listed in Data Table 3 to three significant figures, writing the
­numbers in the first column in normal notation and the numbers in the second column
in powers of 10 (scientific) notation.

(continued)

25
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E X P E R I M E N T 2 Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis Laboratory Report

DATA TABLE 3
Purpose: To practice expressing significant figures.

0.524 __________ 5280 __________

15.08 __________ 0.060 __________
1444 __________ 82.453 __________
0.0254 __________ 0.00010 __________
83,909 __________ 2,700,000,000 __________

(b) A rectangular block of wood is measured to have the dimensions 11.2 cm 3 3.4 cm 3
4.10 cm. Compute the volume of the block, showing explicitly (by underlining) how
doubtful figures are carried through the calculation, and report the final answer with the
correct number of significant figures.

Calculations Computed volume

(show work) (in powers of 10 notation) ___________________
(units)

(c) In an experiment to determine the value of p, a cylinder is measured to have an average

value of 4.25 cm for its diameter and an average value of 13.39 cm for its circumfer-
ence. What is the experimental value of p to the correct number of significant figures?

Calculations
(show work) Experimental value of p ___________________
(units)

26
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Name Section Date
Lab Partner(s)

E X P E R I M E N T 2 Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis Laboratory Report

3. Expressing Experimental Error

(a) If the accepted value of p is 3.1416, what is the percent error of the experimental value
found in 2(c)?

Calculations
(show work) Percent error ___________________

(b) In an experiment to measure the acceleration due to gravity, g two values, 9.96 m/s2
and 9.72 m/s2, are determined. Find (1) the percent difference of the measurements,
(2) the percent error of each measurement, and (3) the percent error of their mean.
­(Accepted value: g 5 9.80 m/s2.)

Calculations
(show work) Percent difference ___________________

Percent error of E1 ___________________

Percent error of E2 ___________________

Percent error of mean ___________________

(continued)

27
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E X P E R I M E N T 2 Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis Laboratory Report

(c) Data Table 4 shows data taken in a free-fall experiment. Measurements were made of
the distance of fall (y) at each of four precisely measured times. Complete the table.
Use only the proper number of significant figures in your table entries, even if you
carry extra digits during your intermediate calculations.

DATA TABLE 4
Purpose: To practice analyzing data.
Time t Distance (m) (Optional) t2
(s) y1 y2 y3 y4 y5 y d ( )
0 0 0 0 0 0
0.50 1.0 1.4 1.1 1.4 1.5
0.75 2.6 3.2 2.8 2.5 3.1
1.00 4.8 4.4 5.1 4.7 4.8
1.25 8.2 7.9 7.5 8.1 7.4

(d) Plot a graph of y versus t (optional: with 2d error bars) for the free-fall data in part (c).
Remember that t 5 0 is a known point.
(e) The equation of motion for an object in free fall starting from rest is y 5 12 gt2, where
g is the acceleration due to gravity. This is the equation of a parabola, which has the
general form y 5 ax2.
Convert the curve into a straight line by plotting y versus t2. That is, plot the square
of the time on the abscissa. Determine the slope of the line, and compute the experi-
mental value of g from the slope value.

Calculations
(show work) Experimental value of g from graph _____________________
(units)

28
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E X P E R I M E N T 2 Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis Laboratory Report

(f) Compute the percent error of the experimental value of g determined from the graph in
part (e). (Accepted value: g 5 9.8 m/s2.)

Calculations
(show work) Percent error ________________

(g) The relationship of the applied force F and the displacement x of a spring has the gen-
eral form F 5 kx, where the constant k is called the spring constant and is a measure
of the “stiffness” of the spring. Notice that this equation has the form of a straight line.
Find the value of the spring constant k of the spring used in determining the experi-
mental data plotted in the Fig. 2.6B graph. (Note: Because k 5 F/x, the units of k in the
graph are N/m.)

Calculations
(show work) Value of spring constant of
 spring in Fig. 2.6B graph ____________________
(units)

(h) The general relationship of the period of oscillation T of a mass m suspended on a

spring is T 5 2p!m/k, where k is the spring constant. Replot the data in Fig. 2.7 so as
to obtain a straight-line graph, and determine the value of the spring constant used in
the experiment. [Hint: Square both sides of the equation, and plot in a manner similar
to that used in part (e).] Show the final form of the equation and calculations.

Calculations
(show work) Value of spring constant of
 spring in Fig. 2.7 ____________________
(units)

(continued)

29
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E X P E R I M E N T 2 Experimental Uncertainty (Error) and Data Analysis Laboratory Report

QUESTIONS
1. Read the measurements on the rulers in ● Fig. 2.9, and comment on the results.

Ruler 1 cm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Ruler 2 cm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6

Ruler 3 cm
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Figure 2.9

2. Were the measurements of the block in part (b) of Procedure 2 all done with the same
­instrument? Explain.

3. Referring to the dart analogy in Fig. 2.3, draw a dart grouping that would represent poor
precision but good accuracy with an average value.

4. Do percent error and percent difference give indications of accuracy or precision? Discuss
each.

5. Suppose you were the first to measure the value of some physical constant experimentally.
How would you provide an estimate of the experimental uncertainty?

30
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