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Estimating building costs Calin Popescu Digital Instant
Download
Author(s): Calin Popescu, Kan Phaobunjong, Nuntapong Ovararin
ISBN(s): 0824740866
Edition: Rev Exp
File Details: PDF, 9.18 MB
Year: 2003
Language: english
 Estimating
Building Costs
Calin M. Popescu
University of Texas at Austin
Austin, Texas, U.S.A.

Kan Phaobunjong
Turner Construction Company
Houston, Texas, U.S.A.

Nuntapong Ovararin
King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi
Bangkok, Thailand

MARCEL

MARCEL DEKKER, INC. NEW YORK • BASEL

ffi

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data
A catalog record for this book is available from the Library of Congress.

ISBN: 0-8247-4086-6

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Copyright  2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

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the publisher.

Current printing (last digit):

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PRINTED IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Civil and Environmental Engineering
A Series of Reference Books and Textbooks

Editor
Michael D. Meyet
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
Georgia Institute of Technology
Atlanta, Georgia

1. Preliminary Design of Bridges for Architects and Engineers

Michele Melaragno
2. Concrete Formwork Systems
Awad S. Hanna
3. Multilayered Aquifer Systems: Fundamentals and Applica-
tions
Alexander H.-D. Cheng
4. Matrix Analysis of Structural Dynamics: Applications and
Earthquake Engineering
Franklin Y. Cheng
5. Hazardous Gases Underground: Applications to Tunnel
Engineering
Barry R. Doyle
6. Cold-Formed Steel Structures to the AISI Specification
Gregory J. Hancock, Thomas M. Murray, Duane S. Ellifritt
7. Fundamentals of Infrastructure Engineering: Civil Engi-
neering Systems: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded
Patrick H. McDonald
8. Handbook of Pollution Control and Waste Minimization
edited by Abbas Ghassemi
9. Introduction to Approximate Solution Techniques, Numer-
ical Modeling, and Finite Element Methods
Victor N. Kaliakin
10. Geotechnical Engineering: Principles and Practices of Soil
Mechanics and Foundation Engineering
V. N. S. Murthy
11. Estimating Building Costs
Calin M. Popescu, Kan Phaobunjong, Nuntapong Ovararin

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 12. Chemical Grouting and Soil Stabilization: Third Edition,
Revised and Expanded
Reuben H. Karol

Additional Volumes in Production

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Preface

This book presents the state-of-the-art principles, practices, and techniques re-
lated to estimating building costs in metric. It is primarily designed as a textbook
for graduate and upper-division undergraduate students in civil engineering, ar-
chitectural engineering, construction engineering and management, and related
programs. Instructors should find the book very useful and suitable for various
teaching styles. Inasmuch as the book contains much more material than can be
covered in one semester or quarter, selected chapters can be used to meet various
academic objectives.
Practitioners or organizations involved in the building industry, such as
owners, architects, project managers, general contractors, and subcontractors for
building projects all over the world can use this book as a handy reference. Since
this is possibly the first US textbook on building cost estimation in metric units,
construction practitioners should find it invaluable when dealing with interna-
tional and governmental projects. Although the text was not designed to provide
answers to all estimating problems, it does provide a practical sequence and thor-
ough knowledge of cost estimating.
Most financial costs in this book are representative of US national average
costs in 1999. The costs are given for the purposes of problem solving and discus-
sion in estimating procedures, and, of course, they will vary with time and the
location of the building project. However, the principles, practices, and tech-

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 niques described here for estimating building costs will continue to apply regard-
less of changes in the costs of materials, equipment, and labor.
The emphasis here is placed on several perspectives of building cost estima-
tion, ranging from an overview of estimating building costs such as types of
estimating and bidding procedures to a more detailed point of view such as quan-
tity take-off and pricing for various Construction Specification Institute (CSI)
divisions, and discussions on overhead costs, taxes, and insurance. To serve as
a useful and effective reference, the contents of this book include 19 chapters as
follows.
Chapter 1 discusses the US construction industry, and presents various cost
indexes in use, one approach to preparing a detailed estimate, and an in-depth
description of the organization and function of the estimating group. Chapter 2
describes various types of building estimates encountered during the lifecycle of
a building project, along with the role and accuracy of each. Chapters 3 to 5 deal
with the major components of the direct cost: estimating procedures and cost
trends related to materials, construction equipment, and skilled and unskilled la-
bor. The bidding process as recommended by AGC, which when properly imple-
mented can enhance the success of the bidding effort, is described in Chapter 6.
Chapters 7 to 16 are oriented to various categories of construction work organized
in sequence and following the approach recommended by CSI. There are a few
very specialized topics not covered in this book, not because they are unnecessary
but for considerations of the book size and its intended use in an academic envi-
ronment. Jobsite overhead costs, which are often estimated too generally, leading
to significant loss for contractors, are covered in Chapter 17. Chapter 18 exposes
the reader to additional contractor costs encountered during construction, espe-
cially bonds, taxes, and various types of insurance required by owners for protec-
tion. These costs represent a large sum of money and should not be neglected
during bid preparation. The calculation of general overhead costs to be allocated
to the project under consideration is discussed in Chapter 19.
Appendices are provided as useful tools, supplying a wealth of ready-to-
use information for students and practitioners in daily practice. They include
CSI Master Format and UniFormat codes, estimating forms, a list of available
estimating software packages, a detailed construction site and investigation re-
port, and a list of references related to cost estimating and pricing in a matrix
format related to the book chapters.

Calin M. Popescu
Nuntapong Ovararin
Kan Phaobunjong

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Acknowledgments

This book is the result of a three-year effort in research and writing. It represents
a compilation of many years of first-hand construction work experience, many
years of teaching experience, and several field trips and interviews with a number
of construction practitioners, academic personnel, and workshops. This is proba-
bly the first attempt in the US to present the state-of-the-art techniques and sci-
ences of estimating building costs in true metric.
However, this successful accomplishment could not have been achieved
without the continued support and encouragement of several groups of individu-
als and organizations. We would like to express our appreciation to the first sup-
porting group, the faculty of the College of Engineering at the University of
Texas at Austin. Our special thanks are extended to Professor and Dean of the
College of Engineering, Dr. Ben G. Steetman, for building a creative and motiva-
tional environment for writing this book. We would also like to thank Professor
and former chair of the Civil Engineering Department, Dr. James O. Jirsa, for
teaching relief for the first author, financial support, and continuous encourage-
ment. We are very grateful for their support and personal concern for this project.
We would also like to express our thanks to the second group, which in-
cludes several professionals from the construction industry, for providing guid-
ance and many hours of their time during interviews with the authors in Austin,
Texas. This group includes Dr. Doug Worrel, Vice President of Faulkner Con-
struction Company; Mr. William Heine, President of American Contractors,

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Inc.; Mr. Marty Burger, Vice President of American Constructors, Inc.; Mr. Ken-
neth Painter, Former Executive Director of Associated General Contractors of
America, Austin Chapter; and Mr. Gary Frazer, Chief Estimator of Encompass
Electrical. Their willingness to share their time and profound insights regarding
building cost estimation contributed to making this project a positive learning
experience.
Additionally, we would like to acknowledge the third supporting group,
which includes a number of graduate students enrolled in the Project Cost Man-
agement class at the University of Texas at Austin in the Spring of 2001, for
their contribution regarding data collection and productivity loss surveys related
to Finishing Operations. Our special thanks go to Mr. Unsuk Jung, a graduate
student who voluntarily helped with the preparation of Appendix 2, Estimating
Forms, and Appendix 5, Construction Site and Investigation Report.
Appreciation is also extended to the group of individuals from leading con-
struction organizations in the field of cost estimating and implementation of met-
rication in the US, whose advice and information allowed us to incorporate their
data in this text as guidance for estimators, construction practitioners, and stu-
dents. These individuals include Mr. Gerald C. Ianelli, Director of Metric Pro-
grams at the National Institute of Standards; Mr. Gertraud Breitkopf, R.A., GSA
Public Buildings Service of the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS);
and Mr. William A. Brenner, AIA, Construction Metrication Council of NIBS.
We owe our deepest gratitude to our families for their caring support and
encouragement throughout our project. Their continued support and concern
played an important role in the success of this work. Finally, we would also like
to thank numerous individuals and organizations who are not mentioned here.
Without their support and assistance in writing this book, this project could not
have been successfully accomplished.

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Contents

Preface
Acknowledgments
Introductory Remarks
Units Conversion

1 Introduction

1.1 Construction Industry

1.2 Construction Cost Indexes
1.3 Preparing the Detailed Estimate
1.4 Sources for New Projects
1.5 Building Cost Information Standards
1.6 Errors and Omissions Management
1.7 The Estimating Department
1.8 Review Questions

2 Types of Estimates

2.1 Building Cost Estimates Classification

2.2 Conceptual Estimate (Engineer’s Estimate)
2.3 Firm Price Contracting Estimate
2.4 Nonfirm-Price Contracting
2.5 Accuracy of Cost Estimates
2.6 Review Questions
 viii Contents

3 Estimating the Cost of Materials 87

3.1 Determining Material Quantities 88
3.2 Waste Factors 90
3.3 Pricing Materials 95
3.4 Material Pricing Sources 97
3.5 Trends in Material Prices 99
3.5 Review Questions 106
4 Estimating the Cost of Labor 107
4.1 Construction Labor 108
4.2 Construction Labor Environment in the United States 112
4.3 Monetary Factors 114
4.4 Labor Productivity 118
4.5 Review Questions 130
5 Estimating the Cost of Construction Equipment 131
5.1 Introduction 132
5.2 Construction Equipment 132
5.3 Equipment Planning 135
5.4 Equipment Procurement Sources and Associated Costs 139
5.5 Construction Tools 155
5.6 Review Questions 156
6 The Bidding Process 157
6.1 Getting a Construction Contract: A Contractor’s
Perspective 157
6.2 Subcontracted Work 158
6.3 Pre-Bid Conference 159
6.4 Bidding Flowchart 159
6.5 Alternates and Unit Prices 169
6.6 Closing the Bid 170
6.7 Review Questions 171
7 Site Work 172
7.1 Introduction to Site Work 173
7.2 Subsurface Investigation 174
7.3 Site Preparation 175
7.4 Earthwork 181
7.5 Excavation Support 205
7.6 Construction Dewatering 209
7.7 Piles Foundation 210
7.8 Paving and Surfacing 211

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Contents ix

7.9 Site Improvements and Landscaping 211

7.10 Review Questions 213
8 Concrete 215
8.1 Introduction to Concrete Work 216
8.2 Basic Concrete Materials and Methods 220
8.3 Concrete Forms and Accessories 229
8.4 Concrete Reinforcement 236
8.5 Cast-in-Place Concrete 245
8.6 Precast Concrete 251
8.7 Cementitious Decks and Underlayment 259
8.8 Review Questions 263
9 Masonry 264
9.1 Introduction to Masonry 265
9.2 Clay Masonry Units (Brick) 271
9.3 Concrete Masonry Units 281
9.4 Other Types of Masonry Units 287
9.5 Masonry Mortar 290
9.6 Masonry Grout, Reinforcement, and Masonry
Accessories 300
9.7 Masonry Cost Estimation 306
9.8 Review Questions 314
10 Metals 316
10.1 Introduction to Metals 317
10.2 Structural Metal Framing 322
10.3 Metal Joists 337
10.4 Metal Decking 344
10.5 Light-Gauge Framing and Miscellaneous Metals 348
10.6 Review Questions 352
11 Wood 353
11.1 Introduction 354
11.2 Rough Carpentry 354
11.3 Finish Carpentry 384
11.4 Review Questions 392
12 Thermal and Moisture Protection 393
12.1 Introduction to Thermal and Moisture Protection 394
12.2 Waterproofing 396
12.3 Dampproofing 402
12.4 Insulation 403

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 x Contents

12.5 Roofing 407

12.6 Sample of Quantity Take-Off and Pricing for Moisture
Protection 412
12.7 Review Questions 415
13 Doors and Windows 416
13.1 Introduction to Doors and Windows 417
13.2 Doors and Door Frames 420
13.3 Windows and Window Frames 428
13.4 Glazing, Hardware, and Accessories 433
13.5 Doors and Windows Cost Estimation 447
13.6 Review Questions 440
14 Finishes 448
14.1 Lath and Plaster Work 449
14.2 Gypsum Plasterboard Systems 459
14.3 Ceramic Tile Work 472
14.4 Marble and Stone Flooring 477
14.5 Terrazzo Work 487
14.6 Acoustical Treatment 498
14.7 Finished Wood Flooring 503
14.8 Resilient Flooring 517
14.9 Carpets, Underlay, and Trim 523
14.10 Painting and Decorating 530
14.11 Wall Coverings 542
14.12 Review Questions 552
15 Mechanical Work 553
15.1 Introduction to Plumbing and Sewage Systems 554
15.2 Rough and Finish Plumbing 555
15.3 Plumbing Codes and Specifications 556
15.4 Plumbing Systems 556
15.5 Sewage Systems 560
15.6 Materials for Plumbing and Sewage Systems 560
15.7 Labor for Plumbing and Sewage Systems 562
15.8 Cost Estimate for Plumbing and Sewage Systems 563
15.9 Introduction to Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning 566
15.10 Heating, Ventilating, and Air Conditioning Systems 567
15.11 Labor for HVAC Systems 568
15.12 Cost Estimate for HVAC Systems 568
15.13 Review Questions 571
16 Electrical Work 572
16.1 Introduction to Electrical Work 573

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Contents xi

16.2 Take-Off Procedures for Various Electrical Components 576

16.3 Pricing Electrical Work 583
16.4 Review Questions 587

17 Jobsite Overhead 589

17.1 Introduction: The Cost of Doing Business 590
17.2 Jobsite Personnel 596
17.3 Travel Expenses 597
17.4 Site Engineering Support 598
17.5 Construction Equipment and Aids for General Use 598
17.6 Temporary Field Buildings—Offices 599
17.7 Temporary Site Utilities 601
17.8 Horizontal Temporary Construction 602
17.9 Materials Storage Facilities 603
17.10 Camp Facilities 606
17.11 Production Facilities for Remote Sites 612
17.12 Personal Protective Aids 623
17.13 Site Security 624
17.14 Miscellaneous Expenses 624
17.15 Review Questions 627

18 Surety Bonds, Insurance, and Taxes 628

18.1 Surety Bonds 629
18.2 Insurance 638
18.3 Taxes (County, State, Federal) 645
18.4 Review Questions 649

19 General Overhead, Contingencies, and Profit 651

19.1 General Overhead (Home Office Expenses) 653
19.2 General Overhead Allocation 655
19.3 Construction Contingencies 655
19.4 Contractor/Subcontractor Profit 656
19.5 Review Questions 658

Appendix 1: MasterFormat Lite and UniFormat Lite 660

Appendix 2: Estimating Forms 672
Appendix 3: Cost Estimating Software 683
Appendix 4: Cost Estimating Sources 696
Appendix 5: Construction Site Investigation Report 704
References 723

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Introductory Remarks

As a young engineer, during the late 1950s, I was in charge of the construction
of several-thousand-room hotels and restaurants at Mamaia, a Roumanian beach
resort on the Black Sea. After forty years, I visited the same beach in the summer
of 1999, and drafted on scratch paper the original outline of the present book.
The outline initially motivated me to pursue the book project after my return to
the University of Texas at Austin for my teaching duties. I assembled a project
team composed of myself and two enthusiastic PhD candidates in Construction
Engineering and Project Management. The team proceeded with the development
of a standard network for the book chapters, including book-writing activities,
duration of activities, relationship among activities, and responsible team mem-
bers. The standard network is shown on the following page.
The team combined the standard network of all chapters, and developed a
master schedule for the project with the use of the Primavera Project Planner.
Consequently, the team coordinated and controlled the project by updating the
project status monthly. Based on the critical path methods, the team paid special
attention to critical and near-critical activities. Even though it was a somewhat
challenging project, by use of such modern techniques in project management,
the book was completed within three years. This represents approximately nine
man-years of effort.

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 A successful builder is one who has the ability to obtain construction con-
tracts that can be executed for a modest profit in an intensely competitive market.
Moving toward this goal, general contractors and subcontractors of building con-
struction projects require an efficient and practical cost estimating tool in devel-
oping contracts or controlling project costs. This book presents comprehensive
knowledge in the area of building costs estimation, which can help contractors
to better estimate and control construction costs. In addition, the metric measure-
ment system is used throughout the world, and the US government and many
agencies are making substantial advances toward the system in their construction
projects. Many governmental construction projects in the US nowadays proceed
with metric measurements. This book therefore can offer competitive advantages
to building construction practitioners dealing with governmental and international
projects. Also, I believe that the US construction industry will fully implement
metric measurements in the near future. (See Tables A to E.) As a result, this
book can provide substantial knowledge in estimating building costs to students
and practitioners in the building construction industry.
Calin M. Popescu

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 Units Conversion

TABLE A S.I. Metric—English Systems

Metric unit English unit

Length 1 mm 0.0394 in. 0.0033 ft 0.0011 yd

1 cm 10 mm 0.3937 in. 0.0328 ft 0.0109 yd
1 m 100 cm 39.3697 in. 3.2808 ft 1.0936 yd
1 km 1000 m 3280.9920 ft 1093.6640 yd 0.6214 mi
Area 1 mm2 0.0016 sq in.
1 cm2 100 mm2 0.1550 sq in. 0.0011 sq ft
1 m2 10000 cm2 1550.0160 sq in. 10.7640 sq ft 1.1960 sq yd
1 ha 10000 m2 11960.1240 sq yd 2.4711 A
1 km2 100 ha 247.1100 A. 0.3861 sq mi
Volume 1 cm3 0.0610 cu in.
1 m3 1000 L 35.3160 cu ft. 1.30764 cu yd 264.2 gal, U.S.
1 mL 1 cm3 1.308 cu yd. 0.0015 quarts 0.0003 gal
1 L 1000 mL 61.022 cu in. 1.0567 quarts 0.2642 gal
Weight 1 g 1000 mg 0.0022 lb
1 kg 1000 g 2.2046 lb 0.0010 t
1 t, metric 1000 kg 2204.60 lb 0.98421 t, English
Temperature n °C (n ⫻ 9)/5 ⫹ 32 °F

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 TABLE B English—S.I. Metric Systems
English unit Metric unit

Length 1 in 25.4001 mm 2.5400 cm 0.0254 m

1 ft 12 in. 304.8000 mm 30.4800 cm 0.3048 m
1 yd 3 ft 91.4400 cm 0.9144 m 0.0009 km
1 mi 1760 yd 1609.3000 m 1.6093 km
Area 1 sq. in. 645.1630 mm2 6.4516 cm2 0.0006 m2
1 sq. ft 144 sq in. 92900 mm2 929.0000 cm2 0.0929 m2
1 sq. yd 9 sq ft 0.0001 cm2 0.8361 m2 8361.0000 ha
1 A 4840 sq yd 4046.9000 m2 0.4047 ha 0.0040 km2
1 sq. mi 640 A 258.9940 ha 2.5900 km2
Volume 1 cu. in. 16.3870 cm3
1 cu. ft 1728 cu 28316.7360 cm3 0.0283 m3 28.3170 L
in.
1 cu. yd 27 cu ft 0.7646 m3 763.3600 L
1 quart 0.2500 gal 0.9461 L
1 gal 4 quarts 0.003785 m3 3.7843 L
Weight 1 oz 28.3495 g 0.0283 kg 29.57 mL
1 lb 16 oz 453.5924 g 0.4536 kg
1 t, English 2204 lb 1.0160 t, metric
Temperature n °F (n ⫺ 32) ⫻ 5/9
°C

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 ABBREVIATIONS AND PREFIXES
TABLE C Abbreviations in SI Metric System
Length Area Volume Weight Temperature
millimeters (mm) square millimeters cubic centimeters milligrams (mg) degree Cel-
(mm2, sq m) (cm3, cu, cm) sius (°C)
centimeters (cm) square centimeters cubic meters (m3, grams (g)
(cm2, sq cm) cu m)
meters (m) square meters (m2, milliliters (mL) kilograms (kg)
sq m)
kilometers (km) hectares (ha) liters (L) metric tons (t)
square kilometers
(km2, sq km)

TABLE D Abbreviations in English System

Length Area Volume Weight Temperature

inches (in.) square inches (sq in.) cubic inches (cu in.) ounces (oz) degree Fahren-
heit (°F)
feet (ft.) square feet (sq ft) cubic feet (cu ft) pounds (lb)
yards (yd.) square yards (sq yd) cubic yards (cu yd) English tons (t)
miles (mi.) square rods (sq rd) quarts
acres (A) gallons (gal)
square miles (sq mi)

TABLE E Prefixes in SI
Metric System
Prefix Meaning
kilo (k) 1000
hecto (h) 100
centi (c) 1/100
milli (m) 1/1000

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

 1
Introduction

Copyright © 2003 Marcel Dekker, Inc.

Another Random Scribd Document
with Unrelated Content
the royal engineers, who was sent to witness the explosion, says: "
The mass was quietly overthrown down to the level of the quarry
ground line, with very littl« noise, and scarcely a stone was thrown
into the air." The quantity of rock detached was found to be 120,000
tons, in blocks of from 3 to 40 tons, averaging 7i tons of stone to
one pound of powder. The operations were conducted by Mr. 0. G.
Reitheimer, the engineer employed by the Messrs. Rigby, the
proprietors of the quarry. The galleries and shaft were tamped with
clay, and the tamping was extended through the entrance gallery to
the surface of the rock. The description of the operations performed
in the demolition of the Russian docks at Sebastopol by the English
and French engineers, which is contained in vol. vi. of the "
Professional Papers of the Corps of Royal Engineers" of Great Britain,
presents interesting examples of blasting. — The choice of the
explosive com 
The text on this page is estimated to be only 28.38%
accurate

BLASTING 699 pound depends upon the nature of the work

to be performed. In quarrying, gunpowder of slow igniting power is
preferred, because it is desired to avoid pulverization ; but in simply
clearing away material, a more instantaneous explosive is found to
be more effectual. Guncotton was used in Europe to some extent
soon after its discovery, but has never been employed in any
important work in this country, except as an experiment. Nitro-
glycerine, or some preparation of it, as giant powder, is the
compound now relied upon when rapidity and an approach to
accuracy of result are desired ; and it is generally preferred when
the disengaging of surface portions of rock is the immediate object.
It often happens in some situations, especially in excavating
chambers under water, where it is of the greatest importance to
keep the water bed as firm and intact as possible, that a seamy
structure of rock requires the use of an explosive which will expend
its force as much as possible in detaching only a certain superficial
mass, upon the same principle that a small hammer, propelled with a
sharp quick stroke, is better adapted to drive a nail in an unstable
and slight body than a heavy one. When gunpowder is used, the
holes are usually drilled deeper than for mtro-glycerine, and when
practicable the powder is poured into the cavity instead of being
introduced in a cartridge. Therefore the holes are drilled in a
downward direction, as nearly perpendicular as the course of
lamination and other circumstances will admit. The small hand drill is
held and driven by one person, and after each stroke it is turned
sufficiently to allow of a chip being cut from a section of the bottom.
The degree to which this turning is done at each stroke is a matter
of consequence, as upon it depends much of the rapidity and
economy of the operation. When the bottom of the cavity becomes
obstructed, instruments called scrapers or dippers are used to clear
it out. Some of these tools are merely wires bent at right angles at
one end, which is flattened so as to form a shelf upon which the
rubbish may bo taken ; but the flattened end should be slightly
depressed on one side, so that by a twisting motion the shelf or pan
may he made to pass under. A worm is often formed at the other
end for carrying a piece of sponge or other material to the bottom of
the cavity to absorb water. It is generally advantageous to pour
water into the cavity while drilling for the purpose of softening the
rock, and keeping the bit from heating. It often happens that water
percolates into the cavity, and in either case some contrivance is
required to occasionally remove it. When the hole has reached a
sufficient depth it is to be thoroughly cleaned and dried with the
scraper and a piece of sponge or cloth attached to a stick or to the
worm at one end of the scraper. Then the proper charge of powder
is poured in and covered with a tamping, which may consist of dry
sand, brick dust, or moist clay. When dry sand is used, it is not
tamped down, but brick dust or clay is, the material being
introduced in small quantities at a time, and successively compacted
with a tamping rod, which is simply a straight bar of copper, brass,
or wood. The end of a fuse, which is made of gutta-percha cylinder,
impervious to moisture, filled with a mixture of gunpowder, charcoal,
and nitre, is passed into the hole and inserted in the body of the
charge before the tamping material is introduced, the other end
remaining outside and being of a sufficient length to burn the
desired time before producing the explosion. When a fuse is not
employed, a priming needle made of copper is passed down one
side of the hole, with the point extending into the powder. It has a
tapering form, so that its withdrawal will not disturb the tamping,
which in this case must be more or less damp. When the needle is
withdrawn the canal is filled with fine powder, and its ignition
effected with a slow match. When the cavity, in consequence of
percolation from surrounding rock, cannot be dried, the powder
must be used in the form of a cartridge, the case of which is made
of tin or pitched paper. When nitro-glycerine is used, it is placed in
cartridges and exploded by means of some kind of fulminate, as
fulminate of mercury or chlorate of potash, or both together. The
fulminate may be ignited either by a fuse or by a galvanic battery.
The use of nitro-glycerine in its raw state being considered very
dangerous, preparations of it have been made, which with careful
handling are no more hazardous than gunpowder. Of these, giant
powder or dynamite, which is composed of 75 per cent, of nitro-
glycerine with 25 per cent, of a certain silicious infusorial earth,
holds the first rank. When an explosive compound is fired, the great
and almost instantaneous expansion of liberated gases, which in the
case of gunpowder is many hundred times its volume, produces an
equal pressure in all directions. Those surfaces which offer the least
resistance of course give way to the greatest extent; and the slower
the explosion and consequent expansion, the more will these
surfaces be displaced, receiving by direct action and reaction most of
the explosive force, while the firmer material will be left undisturbed.
When, however, nitro-glycerine is used, the expansion of gases is so
nearly instantaneous, that the tampings, even when they are quite
unstable, offer an amount of resistance which is considerable. Even
when it is fired upon the surface of a rock under a depth of only a
few feet of water, so great is the reaction produced by the inertia of
the water that a sufficient force is exerted against the rock to rend it
in some instances to a large extent. Under similar circumstances
even gunpowder will explode with considerable effect. Mr. Maillefert
in the years 1851 and 1852 succeeded, by the use of gunpowder in
surface blasting under water, in removing large portions of several of
the obstructions to the navigation of the East river at Hell Gate.
Kocks known as Pot rock, the Fry 
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700 BLASTING ing Pan, and Way's reef, were very

considerably reduced by simply exploding large canisters of
gunpowder, by means of a galvanic battery, upon their surfaces.
From Aug. 19, 1851, when the first blast was fired, to March 25,
1852, 28-4 charges, containing 34,231 Ibs. of powder, were
exploded upon Pot rock, removing about 10 feet of its depth, as
careful soundings have since shown, although it was asserted at the
time that more had been removed. On Frying Pan and Way's reef
240 charges, containing about 28,000 Ibs., were exploded,
increasing the depth of water considerably. Since this pioneer work
of Mr. Maillefert nitro-glycerine has been used in similar operations
with much greater and more satisfactory results. In fact, this
compound, or some preparation of it, is now employed by the
engineer as though it were a kind of chisel for chipping away
projections of rock wherever they present themselves. Surface
blasting has, however, been abandoned, except for the removal of
superficial or unimportant masses of rock. It has been found that
when live rock, as firm, undetached, and undisintegrated rock is
called, has been reached, the surface blast, even when made with
nitro-glycerine, makes so little comparative impression, that it is
more expeditious and economical to drill and introduce the charge
into the body of the rock. When, however, it forms so much of an
obstruction as to require several feet in depth and a considerable
horizontal section to be removed, it has been found preferable to
make large excavations into the body of the rock from beneath,
proceeding according to the method of mining, and to remove the
shell by the simultaneous explosion of charges introduced into it.
Practical applications of this method will be noticed further on. —
When it is designed to bore a tunnel into a mountain, a heading, as
it is called, is commenced at the floor of the tunnel and driven in the
direction of its axis. If the plane of the floor is not beneath the plane
upon which the work is begun, and the surface of the rock is
sufficiently perpendicular, the work may be commenced by bringing
a carriage, armed with one or more Burleigh or other drills, to the
face of the rock, drilling a horizontal line of perforations a short
distance above the plane of the floor of the tunnel, driving the (See
fig. 2.) If necessary, this operation is to be repeated until a step,
facing downward and of sufficient depth, is formed to afford the
most efficient displacement of rock by subsequent Fio. 2.— Burleigh
Drill at Work. drills in an obliquely downward direction, at an angle
of about 45°, charging the holes with gunpowder or nitro-glycerine,
and firing them simultaneously by means of the galvanic battery. B
Fio. 4. B' Section. Ftonl View. FIG. 3. — Mode of Forming Steps
("Stoping"). blasts. Then another line of perforations is drilled in the
step, in a plane parallel with its under surface, at a suitable distance
above its edge, which are also charged with the explosive and fired.
(See fig. 3.) This process is to be repeated until the arch or crown of
the tunnel is reached, and then a new bench is to be formed. This
work can be advantageously performed by hand drilling, but when it
is convenient to work a power drill its employment will generally
afford the greatest progress. When the tunnel is of sufficient height
it is usual to drive the heading (H, fig. 4) forward beneath the
crown, and to follow with one or more benches (B and B'). The work
is always driven against the perpendicular faces of the headings and
benches, and in the direction of the axis of the tunnel ; .but the
lamination of the rock may be such as to make it preferable to drill
the holes in the upper surface of a bench, as at J, and throw the
rock horizontally from the face, instead of commencing at J' and
throwing it downward. Nitro-glycerine may be placed in the drill
holes in cartridges, and fired without tamping or with water tamping,
its action being so instantaneous that a separation is readily effected
in the lateral direction, toward the under surface of the bench. When
the floor of the tunnel lies beneath the surface and it cannot so
readily be reached otherwise, or where counter tunnelling is
desirable, a shaft is sunk to the required plane. The process of
excavating a shaft is conducted upon principles similar to those
which govern the driving of the tunnel, in so far as the forming of
benches and the detaching of the rock in the direction of the line of
least resistance is concerned, although a heading, from the nature of
the case, could not be driven downward in advance of the rest of the
shaft with any advantage. The working will of course be varied
according to the structure and composition of the rock, and the
position of its strata. It may happen at times that considerable
portions can be removed with wedges and levers, and this may be
the case in the tunnel as well as in the shaft, but not so frequently.
In sinking a shaft a bench is formed, and successive portions are de

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BLASTING 701 tached, either by blasting or other means,

until the whole is removed and a new bench formed. The progress
made in blasting at the Hoosao tunnel in Massachusetts during the
month of March, 1872, in the east end, at a distance of 10,046 ft.
from the entrance, was 120 ft. of heading 24 ft. wide and 9 ft. high.
This heading was attacked by 12 Burleigh drills, mounted on two
carriages manned by eight men and a foreman. On Dec. 12 of the
same year the last portion of rock that divided the excavations was
removed, and it was found that the axes of the two only differed by
the remarkably small error of fiVe sixths of an inch laterally, and an
inch and a half vertically. (See TUNNEL.) — In submarine blasting on
a large scale, by the modern method, a coffer dam is erected over
the rock and a shaft sunk into it, from which tunnels are excavated
in radiating directions, and these connected by concentric galleries,
while columns Fia. 6.— Coffer Dam. of roc^ &Te Jeft as supports to
the roof, and to maintain the water bed till the work is completed. A
sufficient number of charges of an explosive compound are then
introduced into the columns in chambers, and in the shell, and
simultaneously fired by means of a galvanic battery. When the work
is not too extensive and the superincumbent pressure of rock and
water is not too great, the columns of rock supporting the roof may
be replaced by wooden ones, thus allowing of the removal of a
larger amount of material before the final explosion takes place. This
is an advantage, since its removal in this way is less expensive than
by rakes and grappling irons after it is broken up and lying beneath
the water. In such excavations many precautions are required which
are unnecessary in boring a tunnel through a mountain.
Mathematical calculations and estimates, requiring extensive
engineering knowledge and sound judgment, must be made hi order
to ascertain the amount of resistance required in the arches and in
the columns of support, composed as they are of rock of varying
composition, texture, and degree and direction of stratification. If a
breach should be made in the water bed, the works would be
flooded, causing serious delay and expense in making repairs, which
must be done by sinking rocks and cement into the breach and
pumping the water from the caverns. Moreover, the breach might be
so extensive as to be irreparable, in which case the remainder of the
rock which had been tunnelled would have to be removed by surface
blasting. It frequently happens that small fissures are opened, which
under the great pressure of water from above cause serious
annoyance, and all the ingenuity and knowledge that can be brought
to bear are required to stop the leak. To avoid disturbing the water
bed, it is also safer to fire the blasts of nitroglycerine singly with a
fuse, and not in numbers simultaneously. It is thus perceived that
blasting as now practised is an important branch of the science of
civil engineering. With the materials and appliances at hand, in the
form of gunpowder, nitro-glycerine, perfect safety fuse, the ready
and facile command of galvanic electricity, properly constructed
drills, and compressed air engines to propel them, the problems
presented to the civil engineer are exceedingly interesting, and offer
no obstacles which careful and correct calculation cannot overcome.
— The removal of Blossom rock in the harbor of San Francisco is an
example of the process of removing submarine rocks by conducting
the excavation from within. It is the only operation of the kind which
has been completed, although another and more extensive one,
previously commenced, is now (1872) in progress at Hallett's point
in the East river, opposite New York. The top of Blossom rock was
about 5 ft. below the surface of the water at mean low tide. A
horizontal section at the depth of 24 ft. measured 195 x 105 ft. The
quantity of rock contained within these boundaries was about 5,000
cubic yards, and consisted of a metamorphic sandstone of irregular
stratification. The great mass of it was so soft as not to require
blasting. In October, 1868, brevet Brig. Gen. B. S. Alexander,
lieutenant colonel of engineers U. 8. A., communicated a plan for the
removal of this rock to Lieut. Col. R. S. Williamson, major of
engineers, who had been placed in charge of its survey. Gen.
Alexander's plan is briefly explained in the following extract from his
communication : " I propose to enclose a small surface of the rock
by a water-tight coffer dam ; in this space to sink a rectangular shaft
about 4 by 9 ft., which is the size I have seen in coal mines; from
the bottom of this shaft to run tunnels and make powder chambers
in such positions that when exploded the whole rock down to the
level of 24 ft. below the level of the water will be lifted in the air and
shivered to pieces." In November following, Mr. A. W. von Schmidt, a
civil engineer of San Francisco, sent in a plan for the removal of the
rock, and offered to perform the work for $75,000, which plan and
offer were in due time accepted. His plan was similar to Gen.
Alexander's, except that instead of the ordinary coffer dam he
proposed to sink an iron cylinder 6 ft. in diameter, carrying an india-
rubber flap at its lower end, pump out the water, bore into the rock,
and slide another cylinder inside of the first down into the excavation
and secure it by cement. It was, however, found difficult to place the
iron cylinder in position without first resorting to the ordinary
cribwork coffer dam. The sinking of the shaft was commenced Dec.
7, 1869. Only one man could work at a time, but in the space of four
weeks a depth of 30 ft. below low water was reached. Drifts were
then run into
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702 BLASTING the longer and shorter axes of the rock, and
steam was used in hoisting. The rubbish was dumped upon one side
of the rock, from which most of it was washed by the tide. During
the month of January, 1870, eight men found room to work. Most of
the rock was removed by picks and sledges, only 10 Ibs. of explosive
(giant powder) being used in the whole operation. In February 16
men found space to work, and by the 20th of April the dimensions of
the cavity were 140 by 60 ft., with a maximum height of 12 ft.
Columns of rock were at first left for support, but they were from
time to time replaced with upright timbers from 8 to 10 inches in
diameter, with the exception of four, which were left standing near
the shaft. Preparations were now made to FIG. 6.— Vertical Section
of Cofler Dam and Eicavntton at Blossom Bock. blow up the shell.
The following diagram, copied from the official report, will explain
the method of conducting the explosion. Powder Fio. 7.— Horizontal
Section, showing Charges. was used as the explosive, nitrate of soda
taking the place of nitrate of potash in its composition. The quantity
used was 43,000 Ibs. The vessels for containing it were 38 ale casks
of 60 gallons each, and seven old tanks made of boiler iron, holding
about 300 Ibs. of powder each. The explosion was effected by a
galvanic battery stationed in a boat about 800 ft. from the rock. A
column of water about 200 feet in diameter was thrown into the air
to a height of 200 to 300 ft., and pieces of rock and timber were
thrown high above the water column. The rock was found to be
effectually demolished, although if the excavations had been carried
to a greater depth much after labor in clearing away rubbish and
projecting points would have been saved. The contract was fully
carried out by Mr. Von Schmidt, under the immediate inspection of
Lieut. W. H. Heuer of the corps of engineers. — At New York, the
operations of Mr. Maillefert in surface blasting had greatly improved
the navigation of the East river; but no comprehensive plan was
projected till the summer of 1866, when brevet Major Gen. John
Newton was assigned by the war department to the duty of
examining the obstructions, and making estimates of the work
necessary to be done. He submitted three plans, each of which
included the removal of the rock at Ballet's point. Some work was
done on some of the smaller rocks by Mr. S. F. Shelbourne, who tried
experiments with a rotating diamond drill, and afterward constructed
a percussion drill of larger size, which was destroyed by a collision
before it was brought to the test of drilling. In the spring of 1869
congress appropriated $175,000 for improvements at Hell Gate, and
Gen. Newton proceeded to complete the plans for the performance
of the work. The removal of the submarine rock at Hallett's point
was the first work decided upon. This rock, projecting some 300 ft.
into the stream, and throwing the tide from Long Island sound
against an opposing rock called the Gridiron, makes the navigation
at that place very dimcult. The plan of operation was to sink a shaft
upon Hallett's point, and from it excavate tunnels in the rock in a
radiating direction under the river and connect them with concentric
galleries ; then, after removing from the interior as much of the rock
as possible without danger of letting in the water, to blow up the
roof and supporting columns. The work was commenced in July,
1869. A coifer dam in the form of an irregular pentagon, whose
greatest diameter was 140 ft., was erected on the shore, and a shaft
105 by 95 ft.. in diameter was sunk to a depth of 32 ft. below mean
low water. Diverging tunnels were then commenced, and FIG. 8. —
Ground Plan of Tunnels and Galleries at Hallett's Point after they
were sufficiently advanced concentric galleries were excavated, and
as the work proceeded their number increased, until at the present
time (November, 1872) there are 19 tunnels, some of which are
nearly completed, extending from 190 to 240 ft. beyond the shaft,
and connected by seven concentric galleries, from which 28,000
cubic yards of rock have been removed. The rock is a tough
hornblende gneiss, and lies in strata of various degrees of
inclination, presenting interesting prob 
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BLAYE BLEACHING 703 lews. The work has been in

satisfactory progress since the summer of 1869, with the exception
of one interval, when the available funds were exhausted ; but the
appropriations have never been nearly equal to what could have
been economically expended. The Burleigh drill has been in constant
use, but hand drills are also worked with great advantage, as in the
progress of the work it is found expedient to use many small blasts
of giant powder. When the excavation is completed it is designed to
introduce an explosive compound into the columns and various parts
of the roof, and produce a simultaneous explosion with a galvanic
current. Topographical surveys are continually made during the
progress of the work to determine the direction and extent of the
excavation, the usual methods of triangulation and levelling being
employed. There have been 21,000 soundings and 8,000 borings of
the bed of the river, for the purpose of ascertaining the depth of live
rock. No accident has happened with the use of nitro-glycerine,
owing to the care with which it is prepared, and the prudence with
which it is handled. With regard to the preparations of nitro-
glycerine, dynamite or giant powder is considered by those who use
it to be a safer explosive than gunpowder. Dualline, which is a
somewhat similar preparation, has also been used with satisfactory
results. The danger in using nitro-glycerine arises principally from
the collection of vapors liable to take place when it is confined.
BLAYE (anc. Blama), a fortified town of France, in the department of
the Gironde, on the right bank of the river Gironde, 20 m. N. by W.
of Bordeaux ; pop. in 1866, 4,761. The upper part of the town, with
the citadel, lies on a steep rock ; hi the citadel, which was built by
Vanban, the duchess of Berry was imprisoned in 1832. On the
opposite side of the river is Fort M6doc, and on an islet between
them is a fortified tower called the Pat6 de Blaye. The town has
been a military station since the times of the Romans. It has a
school of hydrography and an active coast trade. BLEACHING, the
process of removing colors from fabrics and raw materials and
leaving them white. The principal substances to which bleaching is
applied are wool and silk, in the animal, and cotton, flax, and straw,
in the vegetable kingdom. The coloring matter in these bodies is not
essential to their texture, and fortunately can be removed by
chemical agents without injury to the structure of the rest of the
material. Steeping cloths in lyes extracted from the ashes of plants,
and afterward repeatedly washing and exposing them to the action
of sunlight, was practised by the ancient Egyptians ; but nothing
more than this is known of their process. There was scarcely any
progress in the art for thousands of years, or until the 18th century,
when somo improvements were made in Holland. The Dutch process
consisted in pouring the alkaline solution over the goods in a boiling
condition, and 97 VOL. ii. — 45 steeping them in it for about a week,
and, after washing, again steeping them for another week in
buttermilk. After this they were thoroughly washed and exposed to
the action of the air and sunlight for several months. These
apparently simple processes obtained for the Dutch a high
reputation for bleaching, and gave them almost a monopoly of the
business for very many years. For a long period the brown linens
manufactured in Scotland were regularly sent to Holland to be
bleached. A whole summer was required for the operation ; and if
the cloths were sent in the fall of the year, they were not returned
for 12 months. It was this practice which caused the name of
hollands to be given to these linens. The Scotch introduced the
business of bleaching for themselves about the year 1749; but it was
long believed that the peculiar properties of the water about the
bleaching grounds of Haarlem gave to this neighborhood advantages
which no other region could possess. — The precise chemical action
that takes place in the process of bleaching is not known with
certainty, but it is probably due to the action of oxygen when it is in
a nascent state, or in that peculiar and active one called ozone. The
investigations of Schonbein have proved that atmospheric oxygen,
under the influence of sunlight and moisture, passes into an active
state, thus explaining the rationale of the old bleaching process.
Bleaching by chlorine involves the abstraction of hydrogen from the
coloring matter, and the momentary freeing of a portion of oxygen,
which enters into a new combination by which it is thought the
bleaching is effected. The action of sulphurous acid, which is usually
a deoxidizing agent, does, however, according to Schonbein's
investigations, on exposure to the air and light, bring a portion of
atmospheric oxygen into an active condition. Chemists, therefore,
attribute the action of all bleaching agents to the power they
possess of causing oxygen to pass into its active state. The art of
bleaching was conducted by alternate steeping in alkaline liquors
called buckings, followed by thorough washing and boiling and long
continued exposure upon grass, with frequent sprinklings of water,
which process was called crofting; and this was followed by the
souring process, or keeping the articles soaked for weeks in sour
milk, to be afterward washed and crofted several times. By
substituting dilute sulphuric acid for sour milk to dissolve out the
alkaline matters, as suggested by Dr. Hope, the time required for this
part of the process was reduced to a few hours in place of a few
months. But the other operations still involved long time, particularly
the crofting; and frequent losses moreover were incurred by the
exposure of the goods in large establishments upon the great extent
of grass lands they required. Of cotton goods one twentieth to one
tenth of the weight is lost by bleaching ; but linens often lose as
much as
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704 BLEACHING one third, by which their strength also is

considerably impaired : the finer linens lose only from 12 to 25 per
cent. In Silesia and Bohemia, where the chlorine process is not
adopted, the linens are exposed to a fermenting process, then
washed, and steeped in alkaline liquors, with alternate exposures
upon grass, which processes are repeated a great number of times
for 60 to 70 days ; but to render them properly white, they are
afterward passed through a bath acidulated with sulphuric acid, then
treated again with the potash lye several times and alternately
exposed on the grass, and finally thoroughly cleansed by washing in
a revolving cylinder called a dash-wheel. This machine is also
employed in the English and Scotch processes for washing the goods
without subjecting them to unnecessary wear. The frequent
repetition of the different processes is rendered necessary by the
complete diffusion of the coloring matters through the flax fibres,
and their close union with them ; each operation decomposing aud
removing in succession small portions only. — The discovery of
chlorine gas by Scheele in 1774 led to the great improvement in
bleaching of applying this gas to the removal of the colors. The use
of it was originally suggested by the French chemist Berthollet in
1785, and explained the next year by him to Watt of Glasgow, who
was then in Paris. By Watt the process was soon introduced into
Britain, the gas being used in solution in water. Its preparation was
found to be highly injurious to the health of the workmen, and the
fibre of the cloth was weakened by the action of the chlorine.
Berthollet improved the process by diluting the aqueous solution
with water, and also by saturating with potash a portion of the acid.
This was the first step toward the preparation of the chloride of lime,
which was originally prepared after long continued experimenting by
Tennant of Glasgow in 1798. Its first employment was in the form of
a saturated liquid solution ; but in 1799 he patented the use of the
dry chloride of lime. (See BLEACHING POWDEK.) Bleaching by
chlorine, as now practised, varies somewhat as applied to the
ditferent i'abrics; but a succession of different processes is still
adopted, as in the old methods. Thus, in bleaching cotton, there are
the preparatory operations of singeing off the loose fibres by passing
the cloth over heated cylinders ; then soaking some hours in water,
followed by the dash-wheel ; then boiling in lime water, which acts
upon the grease, and prepares it for easy removal by the next
operation of boiling in water. This is followed by the souring process,
which dissolves out the adhering lime, and a succeeding washing
prepares the cloth for bleaching. This consists in steeping the cloth
in a dilute solution of the chloride of lime, which is called the
chemicking process. The liquor consists, for every pound of cloth, of
about half a pound of chloride of lime and three gallons of water.
Souring and washing succeed this, and these processes are
repeated, it may be, several times ; altogether they amount,
including calendering, to about 25 in number. Though still very
complicated, the time of the operation is greatly reduced from that
of the old method. In two days is now accomplished what formerly
required a whole summer, and the cost of the process amounts to
only about 20 cents per piece of cotton cloth of 24 yards. Bleaching
linens with chlorine, though somewhat more expeditious than the
process already referred to in Bohemia and Silesia, is still a tedious
operation, and probably is susceptible of great improvements. It
involves from 8 to 20 different processes of steeping, boiling,
washing, souring, &c., with exposure upon the grass for from 30 to
60 days. Without this exposure a longer time is required for the
bleaching action of the solution of chloride of lime. Rags are
bleached for the papermakers, after being thoroughly washed in the
engine and reduced to what is called half-stuff1, by soaking them
from 6 to 12 hours in a solution of chloride of lime; from 2 to 4 Ibs.
of the dry chloride being used for every cwt. of rags. When the rags
are strongly dyed, it is often necessary to add some sulphuric acid
(half the weight of the bleaching powder), and cause the mixture,
with the rags placed in it, to revolve for some time in a tight
cylindrical vessel, till the chlorine evolved has removed the colors.
This process is followed by thorough washing. — Wool requires a
thorough preparation called scouring, to free it from the soapy and
waxy matters exhaled from the skin of the sheep. Weak ammoniacal
lye is found efficient for this purpose, and this is obtained by boiling
putrefied urine with four to eight times its quantity of soft water. The
wool is steeped and well washed in a warm bath of this liquor, until
all the impurities are converted into soapy matters and removed by
rinsing in clean water. Caustic soda is sometimes used instead of
ammoniacal liquors. Chlorine cannot be employed to bleach animal
fibre, because the nitrogen they contain causes them to become
yellow, and sulphurous acid is the agent which is generally used
instead. Bleaching by sulphurous acid depends upon the production
of colorless sulphites, the decomposition of which, however, by
alkalies or by prolonged exposure, will allow the color to reappear
unless they are removed. This is accomplished by thoroughly
washing the goods after the application of the acid. Woollen
materials are generally bleached by hanging them in a moistened
state in close chambers and passing the vapor of burning sulphur
over them; sometimes, however, a solution of the acid in water is
used. After sulphuring they are washed and exposed to the air. The
process may be briefly described as follows: 1. They are immersed
three times in a bath composed of 24 Ibs. of carbonate of soda, 6
Ibs. of soap, and 130 gallons of water, at a temperature of 105° F.
The bath is renewed after each immersion by the addition of three
fourths of a pound of soap. The goods
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BLEACHING 705 are immersed by passing them over a

roller, and this bath answers for about 2,000 yards of material. 2.
They are then washed twice in clean water at 105° F. 3. Passed
three times through a soda solution of the strength of the first
solution, adding half a pound of carbonate of soda after each
passage. 4. Exposed for 12 hours to the vapor of burning sulphur,
using of this about 24 Ibs. to 2,000 yards. 5. Passed three times
through a bath containing 30 Ibs. of carbonate of soda to 130
gallons of water, at a temperature of 124°, adding three fourths of a
pound of soda after each immersion. 6. The cloth is again subjected
to the sulphur vapor, as in the previous operation. 7. A repetition of
the fifth process. 8. Washed twice in water at a temperature of 105°
F. 9. Subjected to sulphur vapors for 12 hours. 10. Washed in tepid,
and then in cold water. 11. Tinged blue by passing through a bath
containing indigo and carmine. — For the bleaching of silk
sulphurous acid is also used, but previous to its application the raw
silk must, as in the case of wool, be freed of matter which would
interfere with the process. Silk contains, according to its quality,
from 25 to 35 per cent, of extraneous matter, which was formerly
considered to be a kind of gum, and is still called by that name. The
investigations by M. Hoard, however, have shown this substance to
consist of albumen, wax, fat, resin, and coloring matter, and to have
the properties of a varnish. After numerous experiments it has been
found that nothing removes this varnish so well as a hot soap bath
kept somewhat below the boiling point. From 30 to 40 Ibs. of very
fine soap are used for every 100 Ibs. of silk; but the proportions
vary according to the uses that are to be made of the articles. After
steeping, the silks are well washed, put into linen bags, and boiled
for an hour and a half in a weaker solution of soap. Different shades
of white are given to the silk, without further bleaching, by the use
of very weak dyes of litmus or indigo. A pure white is obtained by
the sulphuring process. The Chinese are said not to use soap in
cleaning their silks. One Michel de Grubbens, who lived in Canton a
long time and practised the Chinese method, published in the
memoirs of the academy of Stockholm an account of it, according to
which they use a small white bean, and also wheat flour and
common salt. It is probable that the fineness of Chinese silk is owing
much to the superiority of the raw material. The process of
bleaching silk proposed by Baume' would be an important
improvement if it were not too expensive. It consists in macerating
the raw silk in 32 parts of alcohol and 1 part of muriatic acid for
about 48 hours, when the silk is quite white. — Wheat straw is
grown in Tuscany without reference to the grain. The seeds are
sown broadcast, and the straw is cut when the grain is in the milk. It
is thin and short, but of fine texture. On being cut, it is dried for a
few days in the sun, then stacked in bundles, and dried in the mow
for a month. After this, it is partially bleached by exposure upon the
meadows to the dews and sun ; and the process is completed by
steaming and sulphuring. In England, a boiling solution of caustic
soda is employed to dissolve the hard natural varnish upon the
outside of the straw ; after which the usual bleaching process, with
sulphurous acid or chlorine, is applied. This hard coating, it is said,
may also be removed with economy by several steepings in dilute
alkaline solutions, alternating with others of chloride of lime and the
vapor of -sulphurous acid. — Chlorine is the most common agent
employed for bleaching a variety of other substances besides those
already named ; as, for example, wax, and articles of paper, as
maps, prints, books, &c. But frequently, colors imparted to cloth by
strong dyes require for their removal different chemical reagents, as
chromic acid, or the combination of this with potassa. Protochloride
of tin is also employed for the same purpose. These are called
discharges, and are principally made use of in calico print works. —
The whitening of candles, paraffine, sugar, &c., will be described in
treating of those articles. Wax was formerly bleached merely by
exposing it to sunlight and moisture ; but since the discovery of
chlorine that gas has been the agent generally used. The wax is
scraped into very fine shreds and put into a tub of water having a
tight cover; chlorine gas is then introduced at the bottom of the tub,
while an agitator stirs the water. The bleaching is effected in about
two hours, when the wax is melted into cakes. A process has been
introduced in France of bleaching wax, which is also applicable to
oils, by melting it in hot steam, and subjecting it to its action in
passing through a kind of worm. It is also washed with hot water
alternately with the steaming. — Hydrate of alumina, prepared by
decomposing alum by carbonate of soda, has recently been
substituted for animal charcoal, for decoloring liquids. Experiments
made by M. Ch. M6ric, chemist of the metallurgical works at Creuzot,
show that 15 grammes of alumina may replace 250 grammes of
animal charcoal, in decoloring a quart of water colored by 10
grammes of litmus ; or for sirup colored by molasses, 7 grammes of
alumina were equivalent to 125 of animal charcoal. The alumina is,
moreover, restored with less expense than the charcoal. — We pass
to the consideration of the process for bleaching cotton, which has
long been extensively known as the " American bleaching." Before
the year 1836 Dr. Samuel L. Dana, acting as consulting chemist to
the Merrimack manufacturing company of Lowell, Mass., had
completed an investigation on the adhering and coloring matters of
the cotton fibres, which led him to devise and carry into practice the
application of chemical agents in such order as to insure uniform
results in bleaching. The resino-waxy envelopes of the fibres, as well
as the accidental starchy, albu 
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706 BLEACHING BLEACHING POWDER minous, and oily

bodies present in the manufactured goods, are by this method
resolved into soluble compounds and removed ; and when in 1837
the process as practised became known to the scientific bleachers
and printers of Miihlhausen, it drew forth their expressions of
admiration for its completeness. This method is founded on the two
following principles : 1. The conversion of the fatty and waxy
matters into soaps ; and for security and economy, it is preferable
that these soaps should have alkalino-earthy bases ; caustic lime
becomes, therefore, a most effectual agent. 2. The decomposition of
the basic soaps formed, so as to convert them into soluble soaps,
which is effected by the action of an alkaline carbonate. These are
the cardinal principles on which this almost perfect process is
founded, but there are practical points of interest. After the
principles were published, M. Auguste Scheurer of Muhlhausen
suggested the passing of the goods from the lime into diluted acid.
This step, by no means essential, increases the certainty of an easy
decomposition of the lime soap, as the acid seizing the base enters
into combination with it, leaving the fatty acid free to combine with
the base of the alkaline carbonate, and form soluble soap. In
describing the process as almost perfect, a point was in view which
called for this qualifying phrase. Dr. Dana found that after the new
process had been applied, and modified applications had been
made, there still remained adhering to the fibre a substance which
has many of the characters of wax. This substance he studied at
great length, separating it from bleached cotton by means of boiling
alcohol, which deposits it on cooling. Its few affinities do not allow of
the application of any special agent for removing it wholly ; while the
solution of rosin in alkali, combining with it, dissolves a portion. This
body, unlike wax in its relation to coloring matter, becomes tinted in
ordinary madder printing at the points where it is desirable that
white ground only should appear, and no modification of bleaching
methods has yet met or overcome this difficulty. The steps of the
process are as follows : 1. Steep the cloth in water at a temperature
of about 90° F. for 24 hours. 2. Pass through a bath of milky caustic
lime, containing 60 Ibs. for 2,500 Ibs. of cloth. 3. Boil the cloth as it
passes from the second operation six hours, counting from the
moment ebullition actually occurs, under a pressure of 40 to 50 Ibs.
to the square inch. 4. Wash through the washing machine. 5. Pass
through a bath of sulphuric acid, diluted till it marks 2° B. 6. Wash in
machine. 7. Boil six hours, under a pressure of 40 to 50 Ibs. to the
square inch, in a solution of carbonate of soda, containing 100 Ibs.
for 2,500 Ibs. of cloth, and in which 40 Ibs. of common rosin have
been previously dissolved. 8. Wash in machine. 9. Pass in washing
machine through a clear solution of chloride of lime, marking 1° B.
10. Expose the cloth, as it is folded from the machine into pits with
open sides, to the action of the air and carbonic acid, still saturated
with the solution of chloride of lime. 11. Pass in washing machine
through sulphuric acid and diluted to 2° B. 12 and 13. Wash twice in
machine. The boiling is done in Barlow's kiers, which are especially
adapted to this process, which has come to be regarded both in this
country and Europe as the simplest and best in use. ULEAUII.VG
POWDER. By the action of chlorine gas upon hydrate of lime, a
compound is produced which is known by the common name of
chloride of lime. By the calico printers, and others who make use of
it for its bleaching properties, it is called bleaching powder. It is also
known as bypochlorite of lime, chlorinated lime, &c. The compound
was first prepared by Mr. Tennant of Glasgow, in experimenting upon
the best applications of chlorine to bleaching purposes. He first
made it in the form of the saturated liquid solution ; and in 1799 he
took out a patent for impregnating dry quickline with chlorine. By
the suggestion of one of his partners, slacked lime, or the hydrate,
was substituted for the quicklime, having the property of absorbing
large quantities of the gas, which the quicklime has not. In preparing
it, a pure quality of lime is required, free from iron, clay, and
magnesia, the presence of which would seriously affect the
bleaching process. It should also be well and freshly burned, and
freed from all carbonic acid. Enough water is then to be added to it
to cause it to fall into a fine white powder, which is the hydrate of
lime. Chlorine is prepared by several different processes. One of
these, still common, though becoming superseded by other methods
and by modifications, consists in decomposing hydrochloric acid by
heating it in contact with coarsely pulverized black oxide of
manganese. This substance furnishes a large amount of oxygen gas,
which in mutual decomposition unites with the hydrogen of the
hydrochloric acid to form water, setting free the chlorine, an atom of
which takes the place of the oxygen, forming chloride of manganese,
and another atom escapes. These changes are represented by the
following formula, the first part of the equation being the materials
employed, and the second the products obtained : 4HCl + Mn2Os
=2H2q + 2MnCl + 2Cl. Another process consists in mixing the
manganese oxide with common salt and adding sulphuric acid. The
changes which are then effected are represented as follows: 2XaCl +
2II2SO,+ Mn20.,= Na2SO,+ Mn2S04+ 2H2O + 2C1. It is important
that the manganese ore should be of the purest quality, in order to
obtain from it the largest quantity of oxygen gas. Black oxide of
manganese when pure gives up at a white heat 33'1 per cent, of its
weight of oxygen, and passes into the red oxide. Chlorine gas is thus
prepared in large alembics or stills, which are made of cast iron,
where exposed to strong heat, and in part of strong
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BLEACHING POWDER BLEDOW 707 sheet lead ; or

sometimes of stones closely fitted and cemented to each other. The
lower portion is sometimes made double for the purpose of
introducing steam to heat the mixture in the inner vessel. The
materials introduced are in the following proportions, rated as if
pure, but varying with their impurities: binoxide of manganese, 100
parts; common salt, 150 parts; and sulphuric acid, of specific gravity
1'6, about 185 parts. The temperature is kept at about 180° F., and
the materials are kept in agitation by a stirrer, which is made to
revolve in the lower part of the vessel. As the gas is evolved, it
passes by a lead pipe to the purifier, and into the top of the chamber
in which the hydrate of lime is deposited in trays, which are placed
upon shelves. Heat is generated by the chemical combination ; but it
should not be allowed to exceed 62° F., the supply of chlorine being
checked to keep the temperature down. For two days the process
goes on, when it is stopped, that the workmen may enter with half a
set of trays of fresh hydrate of lime to replace an equal quantity
which has been exposed four days to the action of the gas, and to
stir over that which has been in two days. Half a charge is thus
taken out every two days. When well made, it should be a uniform
white powder, without lumps, smelling of chlorine, dissolving with
little residue in 20 parts of water with alkaline reaction, and
attracting moisture very slowly from the air. When prepared in a
liquid state, the gas is passed into lime water, till this is saturated
with it. The solution, for the quantity of lime it contains, is stronger
than the dry powder, but it is not so permanent in character, the
chlorine sooner escaping from it. — Mr. Tennant of Glasgow employs
a method devised by Mr. 0. T. Dunlop for liberating chlorine from
common salt with nitrate of soda and sulphuric acid. If one
equivalent of nitrate of soda and three of chloride of sodium are
decomposed by sulphuric acid, nitrous acid, hydrochloric acid, and
chlorine are generated. The acids are separated by passing all three
of the gases successively through sulphuric acid and water. The
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