Q-1] Illustrate Granovetter's strength of weak ties.

Granovetter’s Strength of Weak ties:

1] Granovetter's strength of weak ties is a sociological concept that highlights the importance of weak
ties or connections in social networks.

2] Developed by sociologist Mark Granovetter in 1973.

3] The theory challenges the prevailing belief that strong ties are the most influential in social
networks.

4] Weak relationship is caused by distant social relationships and very infrequent meetings or
interactions.

5] Weak ties are typically composed of people who are less like us and who have access to different
social circles and networks.

6] Granovetter's strength of weak ties theory highlights the importance of maintaining and leveraging
weak ties in social networks.

Advantages of Weak Ties:

1] Access to diverse information
2] Broader opportunities
3] Enhanced social capital
4] Information diffusion and influence:
5] Reduced redundancy
6] Increased social integration

Q-2] State emergence of connectedness.

Emergence of connectedness in social network:

1] The emergence of connectedness is to check whether the graph is connected or not.
2] It says that in a graph of N nodes, we just need NLogN edges to make graph connected.
3] The emergence of connectedness in social networks refers to the process by which individuals
establish and maintain connections with others, creating a network of relationships.
4] Connectedness is a fundamental aspect of social networks and plays a crucial role in shaping the
dynamics, interactions, and information flow within the network.
5] The emergence of connectedness in social networks is a complex and dynamic process.
6] It is influenced by various individual, social, and environmental factors.

Factors of Emergence of connectedness:

There are several factors that contribute to the emergence of connectedness in social networks:
1] Human interaction
2] Common interests and goals
3] Proximity and physical proximity
4] Social ties and network effects
5] Technology and digital platforms
6] Social norms and societal structures

Advantages of Emergence of Connectedness:

1] Enhanced Communication
2] Global Reach
3] Access to Information and Education
4] Economic Growth
5] Efficiency and Productivity
6] Innovation and Creativity
7] Environmental Sustainability

Q-3] Illustrate Triadic Closure and clustering coefficient.

1] Triadic Closure:

1] Triadic closure is a concept in social network theory.

2] It was suggested by German sociologist Georg Simmel in 1908.
3] Triadic closure is the property among three nodes A, B, and C.
4] If the connections A-B and A-C exist, there is a tendency for the new connection B-C to be
formed.
5] Triadic closure can be used to understand and predict the growth of networks.
6] It is only one of many mechanisms by which new connections are formed in complex
networks.
2] Clustering Coefficient:

1] A clustering coefficient is a measure of the degree to which nodes in a graph tend to cluster
together.
2] The clustering coefficient is a measure used in network analysis.
3] It is used to quantify the degree of clustering or connectivity within a network
4] It provides insight into how closely connected nodes are to their neighboring nodes.

5] In simple terms, the clustering coefficient measures the tendency of nodes in a network to
form clusters or groups.

6] It quantifies the likelihood that two neighbors of a given node are also connected to each
other.

Q-4] State Neighborhood Overlap.

Neighborhood Overlap:
1] Neighborhood overlap, in the context of a social network, refers to the degree of
similarity or shared connections between the immediate neighbors of two nodes within the
network.
2] It measures how closely connected the neighborhoods of two nodes.
3] Neighborhood overlap examines the extent to which two individuals in a social network
share common friends or connections.
4] It focuses on the overlap or similarity between the connections of their immediate
neighbors.
5] Neighborhood overlap can provide insights into the structure of social networks.
6] It helps identify nodes that are likely to have similar interests or share information within
the network.

To calculate neighborhood overlap between two nodes, you can follow these steps:
1] Select two nodes of interest in the social network.
2] Identify the immediate neighbors of each of the two nodes.
3] Determine the number of shared neighbors between the two nodes.
 4] Calculate the neighborhood overlap using the formula:

Neighborhood overlap = (number of shared neighbors) / (total number of distinct

neighbors)

Q-5] Discuss Embededness, Structural Holes, and Social Capital.

1] Embededness:
1] Embeddedness in a social network refers to the extent to which an individual or a
relationship is interconnected or embedded within a larger social context.
2] It measures the degree of connections, ties, or relationships.
3] Embeddedness looks at how deeply someone or something is integrated into a social
network.
4] It considers the connections and relationships that surround and influence an individual or
a specific relationship.
5] There are two types of embeddedness: Individual Embeddedness and Relationship
Embeddedness.

2] Structural Holes:
1] Structural holes in social networks refer to gaps or missing connections between
individuals or groups within a network.
2] These gaps represent opportunities for information flow, influence, and control within the
network.
3] Structural holes highlight the spaces or holes in a social network.
4] It highlights where connections could potentially exist but are currently absent.
5] These gaps can be advantageous or disadvantageous depending on how they are utilized.

3] Social Capital:
1] Social capital in social networks refers to the resources, benefits, and advantages.
2] It represents the value that comes from social interactions, cooperation, and social support
within a community.
3] It highlights the importance of building and leveraging social relationships to enhance
well-being, opportunities, and collective outcomes.
 4] Social capital is built on trust and shared norms within a network.
5] Social capital facilitates the flow of information and influence within a network.

Q-6] Explain Community Detection Using Girvan Newman Algorithm.

Community detection:
1] Detecting communities in a network is one of the most important tasks in network analysis.
2] In a large scale network, such as an online social network, we could have millions of nodes
and edges.
3] Detecting communities in such networks becomes a herculean task.
4] Therefore, we need community detection algorithms that can partition

the network into multiple communities.

Types of Community Detection:

A] Agglomerative Methods
B] Divisive Methods

Girvan-Newman Algorithm for Community Detection:

1] Under the Girvan-Newman algorithm, the communities in a graph are discovered by
iterativelyremoving the edges of the graph, based on the edge betweenness centrality value.
2] The edge with the highest edge betweenness is removed first.
3] There are two ways:
• Understanding the Edge Betweenness Centrality
• Community Detection in Python

Understanding the Edge Betweenness Centrality:

1] The edge betweenness centrality (EBC) can be defined as the Number of shortest paths that
pass through an edge in a network.
2] Each and every edge is given an EBC score based on the shortest paths among all the
 nodes in the graph.
3] With respect to graphs and networks, the shortest path means the path between any two
nodes covering the least amount of distance.

Q-7] Illustrate Tie Strength, Social Media and Passive Engagement.

1] Tie Strength:
1] Tie strength refers to the level of intimacy, closeness, and strength of a relationship
between individuals.
2] It is often used to describe the strength of connections in social networks.
3] Here is an illustration of tie strength, social media, and passive engagement. Now let us
consider two scenarios:

1] Strong Tie and Active Engagement:

In this scenario, two individuals, Alex and Beth, have been close friends for many years.
They have a strong tie characterized by trust, emotional support, and frequent face-to-face
interactions. They actively engage with each other on social media by regularly liking, commenting,
and sharing each other's posts.

2] Social Media and Passive Engagement:

In this scenario, two individuals, Chris and Dave, are acquaintances who met at a conference.
They connected on a social media platform, but they don't have a strong personal bond. Their tie
strength is relatively weak as they don't interact frequently or have a deep understanding of each
other's lives.

Q-8] Explain Homophily

1] Homophily is the tendency in social groups of similar people connected together?

2] We often hear similar voices interact with like-minded people. Homophily has a significant impact
on social media.
3] Birds with feather flock together.

1] Assume there are 1000 people in a party out of which 500 are of age ranges from 18-25 and the
other 500 people are from the age group 40-50.
2] So mathematically, if we pick any friendship randomly then mostly it will be one teenager and one
middle-aged person, which is most probable condition.
3] But we all know that teenagers may want to talk to a teenager and middle-aged may want to talk to
middle-aged people. This is known as homophily.

Social Influence:
It is the tendency in which people change their attitude or behavior to meet the social environment
by getting influenced by other people is called Social Influence.

Example:
Smoking.
Drinking.
Example of Social Influence:
Suppose I have a friend who smokes so he will influence me to smoke. This is Social Influence.

Selection:
It is the tendency in which people make friends with similar interests i.e. people select other
people having similar habits or interests.

Example:
Two people who speak the same language.Suppose there is a person who speaks Spanish and I also
know Spanish so I will select that person and talk to him. This is called Selection.

Q-9] Compare Selection and Social Influence.

Points Selection Social Influence.

1. Suppose there is a person who It is the tendency in which people change their
Definitio speaks Spanish and I also know attitude or behaviour to meet the social
n Spanish so I will select that person environment by getting influenced by other
and talk to him. This is called people is called Social Influence
Selection
2. Social Influence makes connected In selection, people select similar
Work nodes similar. nodes and connects with them

3. Suppose there is a person who speaks Suppose I have a friend who smokes so he will
Example Spanish and I also know influence me to smoke.
Spanish so I will select that person
and talk to him
4.
Diagram

5. Nature It is an individual-driven process It is a social-driven process.

6. It is an internal process guided by It is an external process that can sway
Decision- personal goals and desires decision-making
Making
7. It can be influenced by personal It can be explicit or implicit.
Experien experiences, knowledge, values,
ce and desires.

8. It primarily operates in individual It operates in social contexts

Context decision-making contexts.

Q-10] Classify Foci Closure and Membership Closure.

Foci closure and membership closure are terms commonly used in mathematical analysis
and topology to describe certain properties of sets or functions.

1] Foci Closure:

1] The term foci closure seems to be a combination of two separate concepts: foci and closure.
2] However, there is no specific mathematical concept known as foci closure. Without further context
or clarification, it is difficult to provide a specific definition or classification for this term.

2] Membership Closure:

1] Membership closure, also known as closure under membership, refers to a property of sets or
collections of objects.
2] A set is said to have membership closure if it contains all of its members. In other words, for every
element in the set, that element is also an element of the set itself.

For example, let's consider a set A = {1, 2, 3}. If we take any element from A, say 2, we observe that
2 is indeed an element of A. Therefore, A has membership closure. In mathematical terms,
membership closure is often denoted as follows:
For a set A, if x belongs to A (x ∈ A), then x is also an element of the closure of A. Membership
closure is a fundamental concept in topology, where it is used to define closed sets. A set is said to
be closed if it contains all its limit points, which is essentially a form of membership closure.

Q-11] Give brief Introduction to Fatman Evolutionary model.

 1] In the Fatman evolutionary model, there are 3 main concepts to make an evolutionary model
i.e. 1. Homophily
2. Social influence
3. Closure
1] Homophily:
People who are similar to each other, they tend to make friends with each other.
2] Social Influence:
People change their behavior and properties because of social influence.
3] Closure:
There are 3 main kinds of closures i.e. triadic closure, membership closure, And foci closure.
1] Triadic closure- In triadic closure, if A is a friend of B and B is a friend of C then C will
eventually become friends of A.
2] Membership closure- In membership closure, if A and B are in the same club then there is a
tendency that they will become friends.
3] Foci closure- It is the probability of becoming friends when they have the same foci.

Example:
So, According to Fatman Hypothesis, beware of fat friends, if your friend is fat then the
probability of you gaining the weight becomes high.
Now the below code will show you the implementation of the above 3 concepts using the
evolutionary model in python by taking an example.
Assume there is a city with a number of people, and we have everyone’s BMI.
Then we will see as evolution continues people having similar BMI become friends to each other
which is homophily.

Algorithm:
1. Create a graph with say N nodes,
2. Add edges and labels for each node.
3. Now add social foci and social foci label for each node
4. Now implement homophily.
5. After that implement closure.
6. At last implement social influence.
7. Now visualize the graph.

Q-12] Spatial Segregation: An Introduction

1] Segregation refers to the act of separation of people from others or the main group.
2] Spatial Segregation refers to the distribution of social groups or any other elements in space.
3] In Spatial Segregation, people tend to migrate to other places where they have more neighbors who
are like them.
4] According to spatial segregation, it is unlikely that a person can stay at a place where the neighbors
are very different from you and you cannot have a good conversation with your neighbor.
5] A person will more likely to migrate to a place where his neighbors are similar to them and you can
have a good conversation with your neighbor.

Example:
1] Assume you went to a foreign country for living and you are deciding where to take the house.
2] So you will more likely to choose a place where your neighbors are from your country and speaks
the same language as yours and not a place where people are from a different country and speaks a
different language.
This is spatial segregation.

Locality with all different neighbors from you Locality with all same neighbors as you

3] But sometimes it is not possible to have all neighbors as same as you. So for that, we can have
some threshold value for similar neighbors to stay there.

Q-13] Explain Structural Balance.

1. Structural balance refers to the tendency of relationships within a social network to form balanced
or imbalanced patterns.
2. It was introduced by psychologist Fritz Heider and expanded upon by sociologist Leon Festinger.
3. Balanced relationships exhibit consistency, where positive ties align with each other and negative
ties align with positive ties.
4. Imbalanced relationships create conflict and inconsistency within the network

5. Individuals in a social network seek balance to reduce cognitive dissonance.

6. Balanced relationships promote harmony, stability, and cooperation within \the network.
7. Imbalanced relationships create tension and potential for change or instability.
8. Structural balance can be observed in triads, where balanced triads have harmonious
configurations, and imbalanced triads exhibit conflicts.
9. Individuals may modify their relationships to reduce imbalances and restore balance within the
network.
10. Structural balance provides insights into social dynamics, conflict resolution, and the formation of
group norms within networked settings.
11. Structural balance can be used to analyse and understand various types of networks.
12. Imbalances in relationships can lead to social tension, conflicts, and the potential for the formation
 of new relationships.

Q-14] Characterizing the structure of balanced networks.

1] Interconnected Nodes:
1] Balanced social networks are characterized by interconnected nodes, where entities in the
network are connected to each other through various relationships.
2] These relationships can represent friendships, professional connections or other forms of social
interactions.
2] Reciprocity:
1] Balanced social networks often exhibit reciprocity, meaning that if person A is connected
to person B, there is a high likelihood that person B is also connected to person A.
2] Reciprocal connections reflect mutual relationships.

3] Clustering:

1] Balanced social networks tend to exhibit clustering, where individuals within the network form
groups.
2] These clusters can represent social circles, communities of interest, or shared affiliations.

4] Homophily:

1] Balanced social networks often display homophily.

2] This characteristic indicates the tendency of individuals to associate with others who are similar to
them.

5] Small-World Properties:

1] Balanced social networks can exhibit small-world properties.

2] This means that the network has a high level of local clustering, where individuals tend to be
connected to their immediate neighbors.

6] Structural Balance:
1] Balanced social networks often exhibit structural balance, a concept derived from social
psychology.
2] Structural balance theory suggests that individuals in a network prefer balanced relationships.
3] This balance contributes to network stability.

Q-15] Discuss Balance theorem.

1] The Balance Theorem, also known as the Heider Balance Theory, is a concept that relates to the
psychological balance within social relationships.
2] The theorem was introduced by Fritz Heider in the 1940s and has since been widely studied in the
field of social psychology. Balance Theorem in the context of social networks as follows:
1] Triads and Signed Relationships:
1] The Balance Theorem focuses on triads, which are groups of three individuals connected through
relationships.
2] These relationships can be positive or negative. Each relationship is assigned a sign (+ or -) to
indicate its positive or negative nature.

2] Balance and Imbalance:

1] According to the Balance Theorem, a balanced triad is one in which the signs of the relationships
form a harmonious pattern.
2] These balanced patterns contribute to psychological harmony within the social network.

3] Imbalanced Triads:
1] On the other hand, an imbalanced triad is one in which the signs of the relationships create a
discordant or conflicting pattern.
2] Imbalanced triads can consist of two negative relationships.

4] Motivation for Resolution:

1] The Balance Theorem suggests that individuals are motivated to resolve imbalanced triads in order
to restore balance.
2] The tension arising from imbalanced relationships generates a psychological drive to reduce the
imbalance.

5] Network Dynamics:
1] The Balance Theorem has implications for the dynamics of social networks.
2] The resolution of imbalanced triads can lead to changes in relationship dynamics.

6] Applications in Social Influence:

1] The Balance Theorem has been applied to various aspects of social influence.
2] It helps explain how social networks influence individual attitudes and behaviors through the
pursuit of balance.It is important to note that the Balance Theorem provides a theoretical
framework for understanding the psychological tendencies in social relationships.

1] The Balance Theorem has implications for the dynamics of social networks.
2] The resolution of imbalanced triads can lead to changes in relationship dynamics.

Q-16] Introduction to positive and negative edges.

In social network analysis, positive and negative edges refer to the types of relationships or
connections between individuals in a network.

1] Positive Edges:
1] Positive edges represent positive relationships or connections between individuals in a social
network.
2] These relationships can include friendships, support, or any other positive interaction.
3] Positive edges indicate that individuals have a favorable or positive attitude towards each other.

Examples of Positive Edges:

1] Positive edges can manifest in various ways in social networks. For instance, in a friendship
network.
2] Positive edges can also denote supportive relationships.Characteristics of Positive Edges:
1] Positive edges are typically associated with mutual liking, trust, and the exchange of
positive emotions.
2] They contribute to the formation of social bonds, social support networks, and the spread
 of positive influence within a social network.

Positive Edges- Green

Negative Edges-Red
2] Negative Edges:

1] Negative edges represent negative relationships or connections between individuals in a social

network.
2] These relationships can include conflicts, dislikes, disagreements, or any other form of negative
interaction.
3] Negative edges indicate that individuals have an unfavorable or negative attitude towards each
other.

Examples of Negative Edges:

1] Negative edges can arise in social networks in various contexts. In a dislike network, negative
edges represent individuals who have expressed aversion.
2] Negative edges can also indicate conflicts or disagreements relationships between individuals.

Characteristics of Negative Edges:

1] Negative edges are associated with distrust, hostility, negative emotions, and potential social
tension within a network.
2] They can impact the overall dynamics of a social network.

Q-17] Moving a network from an unstable to stable state.

Moving a network from an unstable to a stable state in social network dynamics involves
transitioning the network's properties, relationships, or dynamics.

1] Identify Instability:
1] First, it's important to identify the factors or characteristics that contribute to the network's
instability.
2] This can include the presence of conflicts, polarization, or other dynamics that hinder network
stability.

2] Foster Positive Relationships:

1] Promote the formation and strengthening of positive relationships within the network.
2] Encourage individuals to build trust, cooperation, and collaboration with each other.

3] Resolve Conflicts:
1] Address and resolve conflicts or negative relationships within the network
2] Resolving conflicts helps reduce volatility and promotes stability within the network.

4] Enhance Communication:
1] Improve communication channels and encourage effective information flow within the network.
2] Open and transparent communication helps prevent misunderstandings, facilitates coordination,
and promotes a sense of shared understanding and common goals.

5] Establish Norms and Rules:

1] Develop and enforce clear norms, rules, or guidelines for behavior within the network.
2] Expectations help set boundaries, promote positive interactions, and create a stable social
environment.

6] Monitor and Adapt:

1] Continuously monitor the network's dynamics, relationships, and stability.
2] Stay attuned to changes and proactively address emerging issues or potential sources of instability.
3] Adapt the network's strategies, structures, or interventions based on Feedback.

Q-18] Discuss Web Graph and collecting web graph.

Web Graph:
1] The web graph refers to the interconnected structure of web pages on the World Wide Web.
2] It represents the network of hyperlinks between web pages, where each page is represented as a
node, and the links between pages are represented as edges.

-Directed Web Graph-

Directed Graph:

1] The web graph is typically represented as a directed graph since web page links have a direction
from the source page to the destination page.
2] This directionality captures the relationship between web pages, indicating which pages link to
others.

PageRank:
1] The web graph is closely associated with the PageRank algorithm.
2] PageRank assigns a numerical importance score to each web page based on the number and quality
of incoming links.

Collecting Web Graph Data:

1] Web Crawlers: To collect web graph data, web crawlers, also known as web spiders or web robots,
are used. These automated programs systematically browse the web.
2] Starting Points: Web crawlers typically start from a set of seed URLs, which can be popular
websites, search engine results, or other sources.
3] Link Extraction: As web crawlers visit web pages, they extract links present on those pages. These
links can be found in the HTML source code.

URL Frontier:
1] To determine which pages to visit next, web crawlers maintain a URL frontier or queue.
2] The frontier stores a list of URLs to be visited in the future, based on the priority assigned to each
URL.
Scale and Challenges:
1] Collecting the entire web graph is a massive undertaking due to the sheer size and constant growth
of the web.
2] Challenges include dealing with dynamic pages, handling duplicates, and managing web page
updates.

Q-19] Compare Equal Coin Distribution and Random Coin Dropping.

1] Equal Coin Distribution:

1] Fairness:
1] Equal coin distribution refers to a scenario where every individual in a social network
receives an equal number of coins or resources.
2] It emphasizes fairness and ensures that each person has an equal starting point or
opportunity.

2] Equity:
1] Equal coin distribution promotes equity within the social network by reducing inequalities.
2] It aims to provide an equal baseline for all individuals.

3] Resource Allocation:
1] Equal coin distribution ensures that resources are distributed evenly among network
members.
2] This can promote a sense of inclusivity, cooperation, and collaboration within the network.

2] Random Coin Dropping:

1] Randomness:
1] Random coin dropping refers to a scenario where coins or resources are distributed
randomly among individuals in a social network.
2] It does not take into account any criteria or factors other than chance
.
2] Variation:
1] Random coin dropping introduces variation in the distribution of resources.
2] Some individuals may receive more coins, while others may receive fewer, purely by
chance.
3] Exploration and Adaptation:
1] Random coin dropping can promote exploration and adaptation within the network.
2] It encourages individuals to interact with others, exchange resources, and adapt to the
varying distribution of coins.
3] This dynamic environment can foster creativity, innovation, and the emergence of new
connections.

Q-20] Explain Google Page Ranking Using Web Graph.

1] Web Graph Representation:

1] Google PageRank algorithm utilizes the web graph, which represents the interconnected
structure of web pages and their links on the World Wide Web.
2] In the web graph, each web page is represented as a node, and the links between pages are
represented as edges.
2] Importance of Links:

1] Google PageRank assigns importance or relevance scores to web pages based.

2] The more incoming links a page has, the more important or authoritative it is considered to
be.

3] Voting System:
1] In the PageRank algorithm, the links between web pages can be seen as votes of
confidence.
2] When a page links to another page, it is essentially casting a vote for that page's
importance. The more votes a page receives, the higher its PageRank score.

4] Importance Distribution:
1] PageRank distributes the importance received from incoming links to the linked pages.
2] A page with a high PageRank score will pass on a proportionally higher amount of
importance to the pages it links to.

5] Iterative Calculation:
1] PageRank is calculated through an iterative process. Initially, each page is assigned an
equal starting PageRank score.
2] In each iteration, the PageRank scores are updated based on the importance received from
the linking pages.

6] PageRank as a Ranking Metric:

1] The final PageRank scores obtained after the iterative process represent the relative
importance or authority of each web page in the web graph.
2] Google uses these PageRank scores, along with other factors, to rank search results.

Q-21] Compare Degree Rank versus PageRank.

SR. DegreeRank PageRank

No.

1 DegreeRank is a centrality measure PageRank is a centrality measure that

that ranks nodes based on their degree ranks nodes based on their importance in
the network.

2 DegreeRank simply counts the PageRank calculates centrality

number of connections a node has iteratively. Initially, all nodes are
and uses that count as its centrality assigned an equal score. In each
score. iteration, the score of each node is
updated based on the scores of its
incoming neighbors.

3 DegreeRank does not take into PageRank considers the importance

 account the importance of the of the nodes that link to a particular
nodes to which a node is connected. node.

4 DegreeRank can be used in both PageRank is primarily designed for

undirected and directed graphs directed graphs.

5 Nodes with higher degrees are Nodes with higher PageRank scores
considered more central. are considered more central.

6 DegreeRank heavily relies on the PageRank takes into account the

node degree as the sole criterion for entire network structure and the
centrality. importance of nodes connected to a
particular node.

Q-22] why do we follow? Diffusion in Networks, Impact of Communities on.

In social networks, individuals often engage in following behaviors for several reasons, and
the impact of communities on diffusion plays a significant role.
Why people follow and the impact of communities on diffusion in social networks as follows:

1] Social Validation:
1] Following others in a social network provides a sense of social validation.
2] By following individuals who are perceived as popular, knowledgeable, or influential,
people can feel more connected and validated within their social circle.

2] Information Seeking:
1] Following others allows individuals to access a wealth of information and resources.
2] People follow experts, thought leaders, or individuals with similar interests to stay updated
on relevant news, trends, and developments.

3] Social Influence:
1] Behavior is often driven by social influence.
2] When people observe others endorsing specific ideas, products, or behaviors, they may be
influenced to follow suit and adopt similar attitudes or behaviors.

4] Community Identification:
1] Communities or groups within social networks often share common interests, beliefs, or
goals.
2] Communities can reinforce and amplify the diffusion of ideas and behaviors within their
members.

5] Network Effects:
Others can create network effects, where the value of being connected to others increases as
more people join the network.

6] Influence of Communities on Diffusion:

1) Communities within social networks can significantly impact diffusion processes.
2) Communities often have established norms, values, and shared interests.
3) When a behavior or idea is endorsed or adopted by influential members within a
community.
4) Communities act as catalysts for diffusion, as they provide a concentrated group of
individuals.
Q-23] Discuss Cascade and Clusters.

1] Cascades:
1] A cascade refers to the spread or diffusion of information, behaviors, or influence through
a social network.
2] It involves the sequential adoption or propagation of a particular item
from one individual to another within the network.
3] Cascades are triggered by an initial adopter or influencer who adopts and spreads a
particular item within the network.

4] As this item spreads, it can activate other individuals in the network, leading to subsequent
adoptions and propagation.
5] Cascades can spread rapidly, reaching a large portion of the network, or they can die out
quickly with limited adoption.

2] Clusters:
1] Clusters in social networks refer to groups of nodes that are more densely connected to
each other within the network.
2] Clusters represent subgroups or communities within the larger social network.
3] Clusters arise due to the presence of homophily.

4] Clusters can be characterized by shared beliefs, values, or common activities.

5] Clusters exhibit high levels of structural cohesion, meaning that nodes within a cluster are
Densely connected to each other through direct or indirect links.
6] This cohesion creates strong ties between individuals within the cluster, communication,
and influence.

Q-24] Describe Knowledge, Thresholds and the Collective Action.

1] Knowledge:
1] In social networks, knowledge refers to the information, understanding, and expertise that
individuals possess and share within the network.
2] It includes a wide range of topics, such as personal experiences, factual data, opinions,
 news, and insights.
3] Knowledge in social networks can be shared through various forms of communication,
including text, images, videos, and links.

2] Thresholds:
1] Thresholds in social networks represent the minimum level of acceptance or agreement
required for an individual to adopt a specific behavior or belief.
2] They are the tipping points that determine when an individual decides to conform to a
particular idea or take action based on the influence of others.
3] Thresholds can depending on factors such as the nature of the network, the relevance of the
behavior, and the social dynamics within the network.
3] Collective Action:
1] The Collective Action refers to the application of artificial intelligence and machine
learning algorithms to analyze social network dynamics and predict collective actions or
behaviors.
2] It involves studying patterns of interactions, information diffusion, and the influence of
thresholds within the network.
3] By examining these factors, the Collective Action can provide insights into the likelihood
and potential impact of collective actions within a social network.
4] It can help identify influential individuals or groups and understand the mechanisms that
drive collective behavior.

Q-25] Describe Hubs and Authorities & Principle of Repeated Improvement.

1] Hubs and Authorities:

1] Hubs:
1] In the context of social networks, hubs are individuals or entities that have a high number
of connections or links to other nodes within the network.
2] They act as central points of information dissemination and play a crucial role in
connecting different parts of the network.
3] Hubs are typically associated with high visibility and influence within the network due to
their extensive connections.

2] Authorities:
1] Authorities, on the other hand, are individuals or entities within a social network that are
considered highly knowledgeable in a specific domain.
2] They possess expertise, credibility, and a reputation for providing accurate and reliable
information.

2] Principle of Repeated Improvement:

The principle of repeated improvement in social networks refers to the iterative process of
refining and enhancing the quality of information, connections, and interactions within the
network over time.
1] Feedback loop:
1] The principle of repeated improvement relies on the collection and analysis of user
feedback within the social network.
2] Users provide feedback through various means such as ratings, comments, likes, shares,
and user behavior patterns.
3] This feedback is valuable for understanding user preferences, identifying strengths and
weaknesses, and guiding future improvements.

2] Iterative refinement:
1] Based on the feedback received, social networks can make iterative changes and
improvements to enhance the user experience, quality of information, and overall network
dynamics.
2] These refinements can include algorithmic adjustments, user interface enhancements, and
addressing issues of trust and authenticity.

3] Continuous adaptation:
1] Social networks must adapt to changing user needs, emerging trends, and evolving societal
concerns.
2] The principle of repeated improvement emphasizes the importance of continuous
adaptation to ensure that the network remains relevant, engaging, and valuable to its users.
3] This may involve incorporating new features, addressing privacy concerns, combating
misinformation, and promoting user safety. relevant, engaging, and valuable to its users.

Q-26] Illustrate Page Rank Conservation and Convergence.

Page Rank:
1] Page Rank is an algorithm used to measure the importance or relevance of web pages in a
network, originally developed by Google.
2] It assigns a numerical value, known as Page Rank score, to each page based on the quantity
and quality of incoming links from other pages.
3] The more incoming links a page receives, especially from highly ranked pages, the higher
its Page Rank score.

1] Conservation:
1] Page Rank conservation refers to the principle that the total Page Rank score in a social
network remains constant over time, even as the network evolves and new pages or nodes
are added.
2] In other words, the sum of Page Rank scores across all pages in the network remains
unchanged.

2] Convergence:
1] Convergence in the context of Page Rank refers to the stabilization of Page Rank scores
 over time.
2] Initially, Page Rank scores may vary significantly as the algorithm goes through multiple
iterations.

3] Conservation:

1] As the Page Rank algorithm iterates and recalculates the scores, the total Page Rank score
of the network remains constant.
2] Even if new pages are added or the link structure changes, the sum of the Page Rank scores
across all pages will always be the same.

Q-27] Explain Power Law, Appearance of Normal Distribution.

1] Power Law:

1] Power law refers to a mathematical relationship where a variable's frequency or magnitude

is inversely proportional to its rank or size.
2] In the context of social networks, power law is often observed in the distribution of various
characteristics, such as the number of connections or links that nodes have.

-Power Law-

1] Node Degree Distribution:

• In social networks, the degree of a node represents the number of connections or links it has
with other nodes.
• The node degree distribution refers to the pattern of how these degrees are distributed across
the network.

2] Scale-Free Networks:
• A scale-free network is characterized by a few highly connected nodes, known as hubs.
• In such networks, the node degree distribution follows a power law.

2] Appearance of Normal Distribution:

While the node degree distribution in social networks typically follows a power law, it is
important to note that when considering local properties of nodes within the network, such as
individual behaviors or attributes, the distribution may often appear closer to a normal distribution.

1] Central Limit Theorem:

• The appearance of normal distribution in social networks can be attributed to the Central
Limit Theorem.
• According to this theorem, when a large number of independent and identically distributed
random variables are combined, their sum tends to follow a normal distribution.
 2] Individual Behavior and Normal Distribution:
• In social networks, the behaviors or attributes of individuals are influenced by various
factors.
• When these individual behaviors are combined or aggregated at the network level, they tend
to exhibit characteristics that align with a normal distribution.

3] Emergence of Normality:
• As individual behaviors or attributes interact and propagate through the social network, they
tend to converge and blend together.
• This can be observed when examining traits such as opinions, preferences, or traits.

Q-28] Illustrate Rich get richer phenomenon.

Rich get Richer Phenomenon:

1] In social networks, there is a phenomenon called Rich getting Richer also known as
Preferential Attachment.
2] In Preferential Attachment, a person who is already rich gets more and more and a person
who is having less gets less. This is called the Rich getting richer phenomena or Preferential
Attachment.

-Rich get Richer Phenomenon-

3] The "rich get richer" phenomenon refers to a situation where individuals or entities who
already possess wealth and resources.

Here are some key points to illustrate this phenomenon:

1] Initial Advantage: The rich get a head start due to various factors like inheritance, access to
quality education or existing wealth.
2] Compound Effect: Wealth and resources tend to generate additional advantages, creating a
compounding effect.
3] Access to Opportunities: The wealthy have access to better opportunities, such as exclusive
investment opportunities, prestigious jobs, or business connections.
4] Network Effects: Being part of affluent circles enables access to influential networks, where
collaboration, partnerships, and mentorship opportunities arise.
5] Education and Skills: High-quality education and skill development programs are often costly.
6] Systemic Factors: Socioeconomic systems, such as capitalism, can amplify the rich get richer
phenomenon.

Q-29] Discuss Epidemics, Simple Branching Process for Modeling Epidemics.

The simple branching process is a mathematical model used to understand and analyze the spread of
epidemics.
 -Simple Branching process-

Here are some key points to discuss the concept of epidemics and the application of the simple
branching process for modeling them:

1] Epidemics:
1] An epidemic refers to the occurrence of a significant increase in the number of cases of a
particular disease within a population.
2] It often spreads rapidly and affects a large number of individuals within a relatively short
period.

2] Transmission Dynamics:
Epidemics are influenced by the transmission dynamics of the disease. This includes factors such
as the infectiousness of the disease and contact patterns.

3] Simple Branching Process:

1] The simple branching process is a stochastic model that assumes that each infected
individual has a fixed probability of transmitting the disease to a certain number of
susceptible individuals.
2] It provides a simplified framework for understanding the dynamics of
an epidemic.
4] Basic Reproduction Number (R₀):
The basic reproduction number represents the average number of secondary infections caused by
a single infected individual in a completely susceptible population.

5] Branching Process Assumptions:

The simple branching process makes several assumptions, including homogeneous mixing within
the population.
6] Threshold Condition:
The branching process framework helps identify a threshold condition for epidemic growth.

Limitations:
1] Complex
2] Spatial effects

Q-30] Discuss Basic Reproductive Number.

The Basic Reproductive Number (R₀) is a key epidemiological concept used to measure the
potential spread of infectious diseases within a population.
 -Basic Reproductive Number-

Here are some important points regarding the basic reproductive number:
1] The Basic Reproductive Number, denoted as R₀ represents the average number of new
infections generated by a single infected individual in a completely susceptible population.
2] R₀ reflects the inherent transmissibility or contagiousness of a disease.
3] It quantifies the potential for an infected individual to pass the infection on to others and
estimates the initial scale of an epidemic.
4] The value of R₀ depends on several factors, including the mode of transmission, contact
patterns within the population, and the susceptibility of individuals to the disease.
5] R₀ can vary across different populations or settings due to variations in factors
like population density, healthcare infrastructure, and social behavior.
6] The duration for which an infected individual remains contagious influences R₀.
7] Longer infectious periods increase the potential for transmission and can result
in a higher value of R₀.

8] It's important to note that R₀ represents the average number of new infections
and does not consider individual-level variations.
Limitations:
1] Impact on evolving variants
2] Resource allocation, and
3] Outbreak control strategies

Q-31] Discuss SIR and SIS spreading models, Percolation model.

SIR and SIS spreading models, as well as the percolation model in social networks as follows:

1] SIR Spreading Model:

 -SIR Spreading Model-

1] The SIR model is a commonly used epidemiological model that divides individuals in a population
into three compartments:
1] Susceptible (S)
2] Infected (I)
3] Recovered (R)
2] It assumes that individual’s move from being susceptible to infected, and then from infected to
recovered, after which they gain immunity.
3] In the SIR model, infected individuals can transmit the disease to susceptible individuals through
contact.
4] The transmission rate is typically represented by the parameter β, which determines the likelihood
of infection per contact.
5] Infected individuals recover from the disease and become immune to further infection.
6] The recovery rate is represented by the parameter γ, which determines the average duration of the
infectious period.

2] SIS Spreading Model:

-SIS Spreading Model-

1] The SIS model is another epidemiological model that classifies individuals into two compartments:
1] Susceptible (S)
2] Infected (I)
2] Unlike the SIR model, individuals who recover from the infection in the SIS model return to a
susceptible state and can be re-infected.
3] Infected individuals in the SIS model can transmit the disease to susceptible individuals, similar to
the SIR model.
4] The transmission rate is typically denoted by the parameter β, representing the likelihood of
infection per contact.
5] In the SIS model, infected individuals do not gain immunity after recovery.
6] The SIS model is often used to study the dynamics of diseases.

3] Percolation Model:
 -Percolation Model-

1] The percolation model is a mathematical framework used to study the spread of information,
behaviors, or diseases on social networks.
2] It focuses on the concept of network connectivity and the propagation of information through the
network.
3] In the percolation model, nodes represent individuals or entities, and edges represent connections
or relationships between them.
4] These connections can represent social ties, communication channels, or any other form of
interaction.

Q-32] Illustrate Small World Effect, Milgram's Experiment.

Illustration of the small world effect and Milgram's experiment in social networks as follows:
1] Small World Effect:

-Small World Network-

Illustration of the small world effect and Milgram's experiment in social networks as follows:
1] The small world effect refers to the phenomenon where individuals in a large social network can be
connected to one another through a relatively short chain of social connections.
2] In a small world network, individuals can reach each other through a few intermediate connections,
despite the large size of the network.
3] The small world effect is often associated with the concept of "six degrees of separation".
4] The small world effect arises due to a combination of clustering and shortcut connections in social
networks.
5] The small world effect highlights the interconnectedness and potential reach of social relationships.

2] Milgram's Experiment:

1] In the 1960s, social psychologist Stanley Milgram conducted a groundbreaking experiment to test
the small world effect.
2] The experiment aimed to investigate the average path length between individuals in the United
States.

Procedure of Milgram's Experiment:

1] Milgram selected a group of participants who were instructed to send a package to a target person
they did not personally know.
2] The participants were only allowed to forward the package to someone they knew on a first-name
basis.
3] This process created a chain of social connections.

Criticisms and Limitations:

1] Milgram's experiment has faced criticisms over the years, such as concerns about the sample
representativeness and the generalizability of the findings to diverse populations.
2] The study remains influential and has stimulated extensive research on network structure.

Q-33] Discuss Myopic Search.

Myopic search : refers to a decision-making strategy used by individuals in social networks to

navigate and obtain information.Myopic search in social network as follows:
1] Myopic search is a local and short-sighted decision-making strategy in which individuals in social
networks primarily focus on their immediate neighbors.
2] When faced with a question, problem, or need for information, individuals employing myopic
search tend to reach out directly to their immediate contacts.
3] Myopic search offers some advantages in terms of efficiency and convenience.
4] It allows individuals to quickly access information or resources from their immediate network,
saving time and effort compared to exploring distant.
5] Myopic search may discourage individuals from exploring outside of their immediate network,
opportunities, or resources that may exist in more distant parts of the network.
6] The structure of the social network plays a crucial role in the effectiveness and consequences of
myopic search.
7] Myopic search is a prevalent decision-making strategy in social networks.

Advantages of Myopic Search:

1] Efficiency
2] Reduced Information Overload
3] Social Validation

Disadvantages of Myopic Search:

1] Limited Information Diversity
2] Limited Network Exploration

Q-34] How to be viral.

1] Becoming viral in a social network is a goal for many individuals or organizations looking to gain
widespread attention and engagement.
2] While virality is unpredictable and not guaranteed, there are certain strategies that can increase
your chances.

How to potentially achieve viral success in a social network as follows:

1] Compelling Content:

A] Create high-quality, engaging, and shareable content that resonates with

your target audience.
 B] Focus on storytelling, emotional appeal, or novelty to capture people's
attention and make your content memorable.
C] Use visuals, such as images, videos, or info graphics, to enhance the
appeal and share ability of your content.

2] Understand Your Audience:

A] Conduct thorough research to understand the demographics, preferences,

and interests of your target audience.
B] Tailor your content to meet their specific needs and desires.
C] Use language, references, and cultural elements that resonate with your
audience to establish a connection.

3] Embrace Trends and Timeliness:

A] Stay updated with the latest trends, news, and events relevant to your industry or niche.
B] Be timely in your content creation and distribution to ride the wave of interest around
specific topics.

4] Optimize for Social Sharing:

A] Make it easy for people to share your content by adding social sharing buttons to your
website or content platforms.
B] Craft catchy and attention-grabbing headlines or descriptions for your content, increasing
the likelihood of clicks and shares.

5] Engage with Your Audience:

A] Actively engage with your audience by responding to comments, messages, and mentions.
B] Encourage and foster discussions around your content, which can lead to increased
visibility and reach.

6] Seed Initial Exposure:

A] Share your content across your own social media channels and personal networks to give it
an initial boost.
B] Reach out to friends, colleagues, or existing supporters and ask them
to share your content with their networks.