Detailed Notes on Colors

(Pages 95-107)
These notes focus specifically on the information about colors and pigments
found within pages 95 to 107 of the provided document.

I. Pigment Use and Examples (Bellini's Coronation of the Virgin)

The text analyzes Giovanni Bellini's choice of pigments, demonstrating his
mastery in creating luminous effects and rendering fabrics. Analytical methods
used include IR-reflectography (IRR), false color infrared imaging, X-ray
fluorescence (XRF), and diffuse reflectance spectroscopy.

1. Virgin's Blue Drapery:

Pigments: Natural Ultramarine (base layer) painted over a layer of

Azurite.

Effect: The combination creates a "special tangentism" that effectively

renders the brilliance of the fabrics.

2. St. Paul's Dark Green Drapery:

Pigments: A mixture of Azurite and Yellow Lacquer.

Note: Azurite (derived from copper mineral, often from Germany)

combined with yellow lacquer yields the green color.

3. St. Paul's Red-Orange Drapery:

Pigments: Carmine lacquer (Kermes), Vermilion, and Lead White.

4. St. Peter's Yellow-Brown Cloak:

Pigments: Brown Ochre and Realgar, with highlights of Lead-Tin Yellow.

5. Green Central Square on Floor:

Pigments: Indigo mixed with Lead-Tin Yellow.

6. Green Landscape behind Throne:

Pigment: Verdigris.

7. Complexion on St. Francis's Face:

Detailed Notes on Colors (Pages 95-107) 1

 Pigments: Lead White, Orpiment, and traces of Vermilion and Yellow
Ochre.

8. Sky Blue:

Pigments: Natural Ultramarine mixed with Lead White, painted over

small amounts of Azurite.

II. Pigment Composition, Properties, and Preparation

A. Ultramarine (Natural Ultramarine)

Composition: A complex sodium silicate containing sulfur and aluminum

(Na7Al6Si6O24S3).

Color Source: Its intense blue color is caused by unpaired electrons in the
S3− sulfur radical anions.

Properties:

Chemically stable under normal conditions.

Resistant to high temperatures.

Resistant to alkaline solutions, making it suitable for fresco.

Unstable in the presence of dilute acids, decomposing to produce

hydrogen sulfide.

No known incompatibilities with other pigments.

Source: The mineral Lapis Lazuli, which is a complex mixture of limestone,

silicate minerals, and pyrite containing the mineral lazurite (the true source
of ultramarine).

Preparation: The most known historical method was described by Cennino

Cennini in his "Libro dell'arte."

B. Azurite

Composition: Basic copper-carbonate (2CuCO3⋅Cu(OH)2), forming bright

blue crystals.

Source: Can be prepared from a naturally occurring mineral or produced

synthetically (e.g., Blue Verditer).

Properties:

Lightfast and stable in contact with the atmosphere.

Detailed Notes on Colors (Pages 95-107) 2

 Withstands high temperatures (up to ~300°C before decomposition).

Resistant to cold alkalis.

Dissolved by dilute acid (like all carbonates).

Its color can change to green due to transformation into malachite.

History of Use: Used from antiquity until the early 18th century.

C. Carmine (Lakes)

Definition: The name "carmine" refers to two similar pigments derived from
different insects. These are "lake" pigments (organic pigments processed
with metallic salts).

Cochineal Carmine: Produced from Dactylopius coccus, a cochineal insect

living as a parasite on cacti, mainly in South America. The main dye is
carmic acid.

Kermes Carmine: Derived from another cochineal called Kermes, which

lives on scarlet oak. The main dye is kermesic acid.

Properties (General for Lakes): Often cited in a 16th-century manuscript.

Used as substitutes for more precious red pigments or in combination with
other colors. Known for their transparency.

Kermes Lacquer: Very scarlet, widely used in Venice, mentioned in

Lorenzo Lotto's book (1540). It was expensive.

D. Vermilion (Cinnabar)

Composition: Mercuric sulfide (HgS).

Source: The oldest form is finely ground cinnabar mineral. Can also be
produced artificially.

Properties:

Not affected by strongly concentrated acids or alkalis.

Considered quite lightfast, but can darken considerably (due to

transformation into a black form of HgS).

Compatible with other pigments.

Preparation: The ore must be broken, ground, and purified. Dry process
involves mercury reacting with molten sulfur to form black mercury sulfide,
which is then transformed into the red form by sublimation.

Detailed Notes on Colors (Pages 95-107) 3

 History of Use: A widely used red pigment, its use extended until the
1900s.

E. Lead White

Composition: Basic lead carbonate (2PbCO3⋅Pb(OH)2).

Properties:

Fast-drying white pigment when used in oil, due to its catalytic effect on
oil hardening.

Not affected by light.

Should not be compatible with sulfur pigments (like vermilion), but

dramatic blackening of mixtures is not commonly observed.

Not suitable for frescoes because it reacts with lime, causing

blackening.

Alternatives: "Bianco di San Giovanni" (St. John's White) was a brighter

alternative, ideal for flesh tones and imprimiture.

F. Brown Ochre

Composition: The main component is limonite, a mixture of various iron-

containing minerals (e.g., goethite, akaganeite, lepidocrocite, jarosite).

G. Realgar

Composition: Arsenic sulfide (As4S4).

Properties:

Less lightfast than orpiment; can transform into orpiment when exposed
to light.

Caution: Arsenic compounds are toxic and should not be handled

directly.

Preparation: The mineral must be broken, ground, and purified. Artificial

realgar can be prepared by heating and sublimating a mixture of sulfur and
arsenic oxide in the correct proportion (to avoid orpiment production).

Use: Used for strong orange colors and in combinations to create bronze
effects. Cited in ancient sources as a medicine and
antibacterial/preservative. Easily dilutable, used in tints. Used by Titian and

Detailed Notes on Colors (Pages 95-107) 4

 Giovanni Bellini; introduced to Venice by Bellini in the 1470s and became a
favorite color in 16th-century Venice.

H. Lead-Tin Yellow

Composition: Known in two forms (Type I and Type II). Type I is a mixed
oxide of lead and tin.

Use: From Flanders, used for oil painting.

I. Indigo

Composition: Organic dye from the Indigofera tinctoria plant.

Properties: Not destroyed by dilute acid or alkalis; the most lightfast of all
natural organic dyes. No reported incompatibilities in oil paintings.

Use: Used in mixtures with yellow pigments (like orpiment or orchese

yellow) to produce green.

J. Verdigris

Composition: Not a single chemical, but a collective name for various

copper acetates. Their color ranges from blue to green.

Properties:

Reacts with binders (oils, resins) to form transparent oleates or

resinates, a property utilized in painting.

Historically had a reputation for insufficient lightfastness, though recent

experiments don't always confirm this.

Darkens when mixed with sulfur-containing pigments (e.g., ultramarine

or orpiment).

Copper acetate also occurs naturally as the rare mineral hoganite.

Preparation: Basic verdigris can be prepared by exposing copper to acetic

acid vapors and air. Neutral pigment is formed by dissolving basic verdigris
in acetic acid.

K. Orpiment

Composition: Arsenic sulfide (As2S3).

Properties:

Not very stable; decomposes slowly in contact with water (more stable
when dry).

Detailed Notes on Colors (Pages 95-107) 5

 Considered fairly lightfast but can darken considerably in some cases.

Compatible with lead and copper pigments.

Preparation: The mineral must be broken, ground, and purified. Artificial

orpiment can be prepared by heating and sublimating a mixture of sulfur
oxides and arsenic.

Caution: Arsenic compounds are toxic and should not be handled

personally.

III. General Observations on Color and Pigment Use

Raphael's Symbolic Choices: In The Ascent to Calvary, Raphael used less
expensive azurite for Christ's robe (symbolizing humility) and costly
ultramarine for another figure, likely due to patron's contract.

Toxicity: The production of some pigments (e.g., arsenic-based) involved

complex processes and highly toxic materials, making them expensive and
difficult to obtain.

Imprimitura: The ground layer affects the final color. Light grounds tend to
darken over time in oil painting, while dark grounds tend to lighten. This
choice can be strategic based on the desired subject.

White Pigment: A very opaque pigment, effective for highlights and

blending with transparent glazes.

Continuous Experimentation: The 16th century was a period of continuous

experimentation in artistic techniques, including the use and combination of
various pigments.

Detailed Notes on Colors (Pages 95-107) 6