If you have been on a roller coaster or have seen a roller coaster before, you know

it moves up and down a track. Each time a roller coaster moves up or down, its
energy changes from one form to another.

Energy cooks the food we eat, it moves the vehicles we drive. Energy provides
light and powers devices like televisions, computers, cellular phones …. etc.

Energy is the ability to do work or produce heat.

Energy exists in two basic forms; potential energy and kinetic energy.
Potential energy is energy due to the composition or position of an object while
kinetic energy is energy of motion.
When a book drops, potential energy of position is converted to energy of motion,
called kinetic energy. When the book stops, kinetic energy is mainly converted to
heat and sound.

When lightening a wooden splint, chemical potential energy is converted to heat

and light.
Chemical systems contain both kinetic energy and potential energy. Kinetic energy
is directly related to the motion of its representative particles and to temperature.
As the temperature increases, the motion of the particles increases.
Potential energy of a substance depends on its composition; the type of atoms in
the substance, the number and type of chemical bonds joining the atoms, and the
way the atoms are arranged.
When water falls through the intake in the hydroelectric power from its high
position in the reservoir, the potential energy of water is converted to kinetic
energy. The rushing water spins the turbine to generate electric energy.

Propane gas is an important fuel used at homes for cooking and heating. Propane
gas when burned in air, combines with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide and
water. The potential energy stored in the bonds of propane molecules is converted
to heat.
In the hydroelectric power and propane gas examples energy changes from one
form to another, but energy is conserved, i.e., the total amount of energy remains
constant.
The law of conservation of energy states that in any chemical reaction or physical
process, energy can be converted from one form to another, but it is neither created
nor destroyed.

Chemical potential energy is the energy stored in a substance because of its

composition.

Chemical potential energy is the energy stored in the chemical bonds. For
example, the chemical potential energy of propane results from the arrangement of
carbon and hydrogen atoms and the strength of the bonds that join them.
Heat (q) is a form of energy that flows from a warmer object to a cooler object.
calorie (cal) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of one gram
of pure water by one degree Celsius (1⸰C).
When our body breaks down sugars and fats to form carbon dioxide and water, this
reaction generates heat that can be measured in nutritional Calories.

Why is the nutritional Calorie capitalized?

Because nutritional Calories equals 1000 calories, or one kilocalorie (kcal).

Example
Two tablespoons of avocado contain 50 nutritional Calories. This means that if the
two tablespoons of avocado are burned completely, 50 kcal (50,000 cal) of heat
would be released.
• The SI unit of energy and heat is the joule (J).
• One joule is equivalent to 0.2390 calories.
• One calorie equals 4.184 joules.
The table below summarizes the relationships between calories, nutritional
Calories, joules, and kilojoules and the conversion factors that can be used to
convert from one unit to another.
Problem
A breakfast of cereal, orange juice, and milk might contain 230 nutritional
Calories. Express this energy in joules.

KNOWN

Amount of energy = 230 Calories

UNKNOWN

Amount of energy = ? J

Convert nutritional Calories to calories.

• Apply the relationship 1 Calorie = 1000 cal.
1000 cal
230 Calories × = 2.3 × 105 cal
1 Calorie

Convert calories to joules.

• Apply the relationship 1 cal = 4.184 J.
4.184 J
2.3 × 105 cal × = 9.6 × 105 J
1 cal
The specific heat of any substance is the amount of heat required to raise the
temperature of one gram of that substance by one degree Celsius.
The quantity 4.184 J/(g.⸰C) is defined as the specific heat (c) of water, i.e., 4.184 J
is required to raise the temperature of one gram of pure water by one degree
Celsius (1⸰C).

Compare the specific heat of copper and the specific heat of

water of equal masses.
The specific heat of copper is 0.40 J/(g.⸰C) while the specific heat if water is 4.184
J/(g.⸰C), which means that the temperature of copper increases roughly ten times
more than water’s temperature when equal masses of copper and water absorb the
same amount of energy. Therefore, the specific heat of a substance is an intensive
property, it does not depend on the amount of the substance.
The quantity of heat absorbed or released by a substance is equal to the product
of its specific heat, the mass of the substance, and the change in its temperature.

q = c × m × ∆T
q represents the heat absorbed or released,
c represents the specific heat of the substance,
m represents the mass of the sample in grams, and
∆T is the change in temperature in ⸰C, or Tfinal – Tinitial.
Problem
In the construction of bridges and skyscrapers, gaps must be left between adjoining
steel beams to allow for the expansion and contraction of the metal due to heating
and cooling. The temperature of a sample of iron with a mass of 10.0 g changed
from 50.4°C to 25.0°C with the release of 114J. What is the specific heat of iron?

KNOWN

Energy released = 114 J Ti = 50.4°C

Mass of iron = 10.0 g Fe Tf = 25.0°C

UNKNOWN

Specific heat of iron, c = ? J/(g•°C)

Calculate ΔT.
ΔT = 50.4°C – 25.0°C = 25.4°C
• State the equation for calculating heat.
q = c × m × ΔT
• Solve for c.
c × m × ΔT q
=
m × ΔT m × ΔT
q
c=
m × ΔT
q
c=
m × ΔT

• Substitute q = 114 J, m = 10.0 g, and ΔT = 25.4°C.

114 J
c=
(10.0 g) (25.4°C)

• Multiply and divide numbers and units.

c = 0.449 J/(g•°C)
Think about staying at home next to the radiator during a cold winter day, relaxing
as your body absorbs heat from the radiator. When you rush to play in the snow
outside your house you might shiver as your body loses heat. In a similar way,
some chemical reactions absorb heat whereas others release heat.
In a chemical reaction energy is required to break the bonds in the reactants, and
energy is given out when new bonds are formed in the products. The most
important type of energy in chemistry is heat. If the bonds in the products are
stronger than the bonds in the reactants then the reaction is said to be exothermic,
as heat is given out to the surroundings. In endothermic reactions heat is absorbed
from the surroundings because the bonds in the reactants are stronger than the
bonds in the products.
Have you ever thought how chemists obtain the Calorie
information that appears on a food package?

The packages record the results of combustion reactions carried out in

calorimeters.
A calorimeter is an insulated device used for measuring the amount of heat
absorbed or released during a chemical or physical process.
A known mass of water is placed in an insulated chamber to absorb the energy
released from the reacting system or to provide the energy absorbed by the system.
In a simple calorimeter all heat evolved in an exothermic reaction is used to raise
the temperature of a known mass of water. For endothermic reactions the heat
transferred from the water to the reaction can be calculated by measuring the
lowering of temperature of a known mass of water.
The data collected is the change in temperature of this mass of water.
A bomb calorimeter is used by food chemists.

Calorimetry experiments can be used to determine the specific heat of an unknown

metal. A sample is positioned in a steel inner chamber called the bomb, which is
filled with oxygen at high pressure. Surrounding the bomb is a measured mass of
water stirred by a stirrer to ensure uniform temperature. The reaction is initiated by
a spark, and the temperature is recorded until it reaches it maximum.
A simple calorimeter can be made using a polystyrene cup to measure the heat
change.
 Example

Problem
A piece of metal with a mass of 4.68 g absorbs 256 J of heat when its temperature
increases by 182°C. What is the specific heat of the metal? Could the metal be one
of the alkaline earth metals?
ANALYZE THE PROBLEM
You are given the mass of the metal, the amount of heat it absorbs, and the
temperature change. You must calculate the specific heat. Use the equation for q,
the quantity of heat, but solve for specific heat, c.

KNOWN

mass of metal, m = 4.68 g

quantity of heat absorbed, q = 256 J

ΔT = 182°C

UNKNOWN

specific heat, c = ? J/(g•°C)

• State the equation for the quantity of heat, q.

q = c × m × ΔT
• Solve for c.
q
c=
𝑚 × 𝛥𝑇

• Substitute q = 256 J, m = 4.68 g, and ΔT = 182°C.

256 J
c= = 0.301 J/(g•°C)
(4.68 𝑔) (182°𝐶)

Thermochemistry is the study of heat changes that accompany chemical reactions

and phase changes. In thermochemistry, the system is the specific part of the
universe that contains the reaction or process you wish to study. You can think of
the system as being all the reactants, products, and any solvents. Everything in the
universe other than the system is considered the surroundings. The surroundings
include the apparatus that contains the reaction, thermometers or other measuring
devices, the laboratory, and everything external to the reacting substances.
Therefore, the universe is the system plus the surroundings.

To measure and study the energy changes that accompany chemical reactions,
chemists have defined a property called enthalpy.
Enthalpy (H) is the heat content of a system at constant pressure.
The absolute value of the enthalpy of the reactants cannot be known, nor can the
enthalpy of the products, but what can be measured is the difference between them.
The change in enthalpy for a reaction is called the enthalpy (heat) of reaction
(∆Hrxn).
The enthalpy (heat) of reaction (∆Hrxn) is the difference between the enthalpy of
the reactants of the reaction and the enthalpy of the products of the reaction.

ΔHrxn = Hfinal – Hinitial

ΔHrxn = Hproducts – Hreactants

What kind of energy transfer occurs during the exothermic

heat pack reaction?
A chemical reaction in which heat is transferred from the system to the
surroundings is defined as exothermic reaction.
In a heat pack, heat is produced by the reaction flows from the heat pack (the
system) to your cold hands (part of the surroundings).

The downward arrow shows that 1625 KJ of heat is released to the surroundings in the reaction between iron
and oxygen to form iron (III) oxide. A heat pack utilizing this reaction of iron and oxygen provides energy for
warming cold hands.
The reactants in this exothermic reaction lose heat. Therefore, Hproducts < Hreactants.
When Hreactants is subtracted from the smaller Hproducts , a negative value for ∆Hrxn
results.
Enthalpy changes for exothermic reactions are always negative.

4Fe (s) + 3O2 (g) → 2Fe2O3(s) , ∆Hrxn= -1625 KJ

What kind of energy transfer occurs during the endothermic

cold pack reaction?

A chemical reaction that absorb heat from its surrounding is defined as

endothermic reaction.
In a cold pack, heat flows from the surroundings to the system.

The upward arrow shows that 27 KJ of heat is absorbed from the surroundings in the process of dissolving
ammonium nitrate. This reaction is the basis for the cold pack.

For this endothermic process, Hproducts > Hreactants. Therefore, when Hreactants is
subtracted from the larger Hproducts, a positive value for Hrxn results.
Enthalpy changes for endothermic reactions are always positive.

NH4NO3(s) → NH4+(aq) + NO3- (aq), ∆Hrxn= +27 KJ