CHAPTER V
GENDER EQUALITY AND SOCIETY
Gender Equality
Gender equality is based on the idea of equality of opportunities. It entails the concept that all
human beings,both men and women, are free to develop their personal abilities and make
choices without the limitations set by stereotypes, rigid gender roles, or prejudices. Gender
equality means that the different behaviors, aspirations and needs of women and men are
considered, valued and favored equally. It does not mean that women and men have to become
the same, but that their rights, responsibilities and opportunities will not depend on whether
they are born male or female
Gender Equity
Gender equity denotes equivalence of life outcomes of women and men. Gender equity
recognizes women and men have different needs, preferences and interests and may require
different treatment of men and women or it means fairness of treatment for women and men,
according to their respective needs. This may include equal treatment Or treatment that is
different but considered equivalent in terms of rights, benefits, obligations and opportunities. In
the development context, a gender equity goal often requires built-in measures to compensate
for the historical and social disadvantages of women.
Gender Inequality: Sex Discrimination in Employment Women
Gender equality is about equal opportunity for men and women to identify their individual
potential. One must be able to benefit from their participation in society and contribute to the
economic and social development of their country (Australian Government. 2009). Through
multiple reviewed literature on gender inequality, the overall concept within many sociological
readings was the way gender inequality socially relates to employment and careers.
There are three separate themes that intersect within the written literature that will be discussed.
1. Gender differences in historical social roles have created stereotypes on the contemporary
outlooks of the social attitude.
2. Through beliefs and values, career pathways and choices have become gendered from
factors of culture and society.
3. Occupational segregation within the workforce is stil dominant, but more equality is breaking
through for the future. In this research, I will identify the factors that inter-link gender within
different parts of society
Sociolingustic Differences Between Men and Women
Morphological variations in these words are gender markers: actor versus actress,
congressman versus congresswoman, policeman versus policewoman, comedian versus
comedienne, etc. In conclusion, when trying to understand the effects of language one will find
that it can serve as the structure of a society as well as determine the ways in which individuals
are viewed and valued within that society. In this case, the social construction of gender are
responsible for the differences in women's linguistic behavior and how it relates to their
secondary place in tho male-dominated world. Because of such distinguished roles,different
linguistic strategies are acquired by female and male subcultures in culture and social
organization.
The Relationship of Gender and Linguistic Behavior
Among the major social determinants of linguistic variation, gender is widely considered to be
one of the mosl leatures, gender may even be the dominant factor. The topic which is getting
more and more attention since it is closely related to gender studies. It is widely agreed that
men and women use language differently in most speech communities,though to various
extents (Holmes, 2001). Many works on the topic indicate that gender-specific linguistic
behavior is a social practice which is based on gender identities and power relations (Eckert &
McConnell-Ginet, 1992; Bruckmüller,Hegarty &t Abele, 2012).erved.
Ten (10) Causes of Gender Inequality
Over the years, the world has gotten closer to achieving gender equality. There is better
representation of women in politics, more economic opportunities, and better healthcare in
many places of the world. However, the World Economic Forum estimates it will take another
century before true gender equality becomes a reality. What drives the gap between genders?
Here are Ten causes of gender inequality:
1. Uneven Access to Education
In education, the term access typically refers to the ways in which educational institutions and
policies ensure or at least strive to ensure that students have equal and equitable opportunities
to take full advantage of their education.
Universal access to education
Universal access to education is the ability of all people to have equal opportunity in education,
regardless of their social class, race, gender, sexuality, ethnic background or physical and
mental disabilities.
Around the world, women still have less access to education than men. ' of young women
between 15-24 will hot finish primary school. That group makes up 58% of the people not
completing that basic education. Of all the illilerate people in the world, are women. When girls
are not educated On the same level as boys, it has a huge effect on their future and the kinds of
opportunities they'll get.
2. Lack of Employment Equality
Equality in the workplace ensures people are given equal opportunities, equal pay, and are well
accepted for their differences. It is creating an inclusive and conducive work environment where
employees feel secure and happy.
Only six (6) countries in the world give women the same legal work rights as men. If youre a
woman and want to be on an equal footing with men, it's best to live and work in Belgium,
Denmark, France, Latuia, Luxembourg or Sweden.
In fact, most economies give women only %/4 the rights of men. Studies show that if
employment became a more even playing field, it has a positive domino effect on other areas
prone to gender inequality.
3. Job Segregation
Occupational segregation is the distribution of workers across and within occupations, based
upon demographic characteristics, most often gender. While a job refers to an actual position in
a firm or industry, an occupation represents a group of similar jobs that require similar skill
requirements and duties.
One of the causes for gender inequality within employment is the division of jobs. In most
societies, there's an inherent belief that men are simply better equipped to handle certain jobs.
Most of the time, those are the jobs that pay the best. This discrimination results in lower
income for women.Women also take on the primary responsibility for unpaid labor, so even as
they participate in the paid workforce, they have extra work that never gets recognized
financially.
4. Lack of Legal Protections
The most common civil rights are: the prohibition of discrimination based on race, ethnicity,
religion, and gender;the right to personal security, including protections for persons accused or
suspected of crimes; the right to vote and to participate in democratic political processes; and
freedonl of expression, association, and religion.
According to research from the World Bank, over one billion women don't have legal protection
against domestic sexual violence or domestic economic violence. Both have a significant
impact on women's ability to thrive and live in freedom. In many countries, there's also a lack of
legal protections against harassment in the workplace, at school,and in public. These places
become unsafe and without protection, women frequently have to make decisions that
compromise and limit their goals.
5. Lack of Bodily Autonomy
Bodily autonomy is about the right to make decisions over one's own life and future. It is about
being empowered to make informed ichoices. These are universal values.Governments
everywhere have committed, in a variety of international agreements, to protecting autonomy.
Many women around the world do not have authority over their own bodies or when they
become parents. Accessing birth control is frequently very difficult. According to the Worla
Health Organization, over 200 million women who don't want to get pregnant are not using
contraception. There are various reasons for this such as a lack of options, limited access, and
cultural/religious opposition. On a global scale, about 40% of pregnancies are not planned and
while 50% of them do end in abortion, 38% result in births. These mothers often become
financially dependent on another person or the state, losing their freedom.
6. Poor Medical Care
Medical care means the ordinary and usual professional services rendered by a Physician or
other specified Provider during a professional visit for treatment of an illness or injury.In
addition to limited access to contraception, women overall receive lower-quality medical care
than men. This is linked to other gender inequality reasons such as a lack of education and job
opportunities, which results in more women being in poverty. They are less likely to be able to
afford good healthcare. There's also been less research into diseases that affect women more
than men, such as autoimmune disorders and chronic pain conditions. Many women also
experience discrimination and dismissal from their doctors, broadening the gender gap in
healthcare quality.
7. Lack of Religious Freedom
Religious freedom is a fundamental human right and the first among rights guaranteed by the
Constitution. It is the right to think, express and act upon what you deeply believe,according to
the dictates of conscience.
When religious freedom is attacked, women suffer the most. According to the World Economic
Forum, when extremist ideologies (such as ISIS) come into a community and restrict religious
freedom, gender inequality gets worse,In a study performed by Georgetown University and
Brigham Young University, researchers were also able to connect religious intolerance with
women's ability to participate in the economy. When there's more religious freedom, an
economy becomes more stable thanks to women's participation.
8. Lack of political representation
Political representation is the activity of making citizens"present" in public policy making
processes when political actors act in the best interest of citizens.
Of all national parliaments at the beginning of 2019,only 24.3% of seats were filled by women.
As of June of 2019,11 Heads of State were women. Despite progress in this area Over the years,
women are still grossly underrepresented in government and the political process. This means
that certain issues that female politicians tend to bring up - such as parental leave and childcare,
pensions, gender equality laws and gender-based violence -are often neglected.
9. Racism
This word is commonly used to describe prejudice and discrimination based on race. Racism
can also be said to describe a condition in society in which a dominant racial group benefits
from the oppression of others, whether that group wants such benefits or not.
It would be impossible to talk about gender inequality without talking about racism. It affects
what jobs women of color are able to get and how much they're paid, as well as how they are
viewed by legal and healthcare systems. Gender inequality and racism have been closely-linked
for a long time,According to Sally Kitch, a professor and author, European settlers in Virginia
decided what work could be taxed based on the race of the woman performing the work.
African women's work was "labor," so it was taxable, while work performed by English women
was "domestic" and not taxable. The pay gaps between white women and women of color
continues that Jegacy of discrimination and contributes to gender inequality.
10.Societal Mindsets
Social mind set is about focusing on people more than focusing on process and having a belief
that magic happens when: We create ecosystems where good people can thrive.People are
aligned to purpose and are clear about how their work contributes to larger objectives.
It's less tangible than some of the other causes on this list, but the overall mindset of a society
has a significant impact on gender inequality. How society determines the differences and value
of men vs. women plays a starring role in every arena, whether it's employment or the legal
system or healthcare. Beliefs about gender run deep and even though progress can be made
through laws and structural changes,there's often a pushback following times of major change.
It's also common for everyone (men and women) to ignore other areas of gender inequality
when there's progress, such as better representation for women in leadership. These types of
mindsets prop up gender inequality and delay significant change.
Gender Mainstreaming
It is a strategy for making women's, as well as men's,Concerns and experiences an integral
dimension in the design,Implementation, monitoring and evaluation of policies and programmes
in all political, economic and social spheres so that women and men benefit equally and
inequality is not perpetuated. The ultimate goal is to achieve gender equality (UN- ECOSOC
Definition (1997). Gender mainstreaming should be done in all areas and at all levels in society.
1. Gender mainstreaming discourse started in the 80's as opposed to Women's only discourse
of 70's.
a. Beijing platform for action (1995) also stressed gender mainstreaming as key to women's
empowerment
b. Instead of women only activities, inclusion of gender perspective is central to all policy
making, research advocacy, development, implementation and monitoring exercises.
c. Women targetted activities will still be required
2. A process, not an end in itself
a. The objective of gender mainstreaming is to promote gender equality or the empowerment of
women (MDG 3)
b. How to proceed depends on the level of analysis and action (e.g., National law or policy
reform? Sector policy? Organizational change? Program or project design?)
Steps to Gender Mainstreaming
Step 1: Assessment of linkages between gender equality and issue or sector worked on
Step 2: Identify entry points/opportunities for introducing gender perspectives
Step 3: Identify approach or methodology for incorporating gender perspective in these works
GenderMainstreaming: KeyIngredients (fororganizations)
1. Political commitment for change
2. Technical capacity to implement change
3. Supportive institutional structures and procedures
4. Adequate financial resources
5. Accountability and monitoring systems
Gender Mainstreaming in Programs and Projects:
General Principles
1. Based on understanding that men's and women's needs, interests and constraints often differ;
these factors need to be taken into account for development interventions to be effective and
sustainable
2. Differences among groups of men and women also need to be recognized(e.g., based on
income level,caste/ethnicity, religion, age, urban/rural location,etc)
3. Gender concerns need to be addressed at each stage of the program/project cycle
4. Monitoring of gender-related impacts of the program/project (through collection of sex-
disaggregatea data and tracking of gender-relevant indicators -should be reflected in the design
& monitoring framework)
Gender aware planning
Gender aware planning should be stressed during all phases of project cycles, right from
identification of project.
1. Relevant data on gender should be collected, baseline research on gender issues should be
conducted
2. Balanced distribution of project staff should be maintained
3. Training of both male and female project staff is necessary to ensure participation of both
sexes.
4. Women and women's organization should be represented in all committees related to
development planning
Approaches
Gender-neutral approaches do not account for the differences between women and men and do
not consider how women and men may be marginalized and harmed or may not benefit from
research, programs and policy.
1. Genderaware (or responsive) approaches are designed to meet both women's and men's
needs,These approaches ensure that both women and men will benefit, and neither will be
harmed by research,programs and policy, such as, for example, by exacerbating their work
burdens.
2. Gender transformative approaches actively strive to examine, question, and change rigid
gender norms and the imbalance of power as a means of achieving development goals as well
as meeting gender equity objectives.
These research, programmatic and policy approaches challenge the distribution of resources
and allocation of duties between men and women.
GAD versus WID
Women in Development (WID) is an approach that emerged in the 1970s, with the goal of
integrating women more fully into the development process. It includes strategies such as
women and the only projects and credit and training projects for women.
Gender and Development (GAD) Approach was developed in 1980s in response to perceived
failings of the WID Approach. Rather than focusing exclusively on women,this approach is
concerned with relations between women and men. It Challenges unequal decision-making and
power relations between not only men and women but also between rich and poor
Shift in development approach:
WID vs. GAD Criteria
1. Womenin Development(WID) Genderand Development (GAD) Approach
2. An approach which views women's lack of participation as the problem
3. An approach to people centered development
4. Focus Women Relations between women and men
The Problem
The exclusion of women (half of the productive resource) from the development process
Unequal relations (between women and men, rich and poor) that prevents equitable
development and women's full participation
The Goal More efficient, effective development
Equitable, sustainable development with men and women sharing decision- making and power
WID vs. GAD-2 Criteria Women in Development (WID) Gender and Development (GAD
1. The Solution Integrate women into existing structures
2. Empower the disadvantaged and women
3. Transform unequal relations and structures
4. The Strategies Women only projects
5. Women's component integrated projects
6. Increase women's productivity
7. Increase women's income
8. Increase women's ability to manage the household. Identify /address practical needs
determined by women and men to improve their condition
9. At the same time address strategic gender needs of women and men
10.Address strategic needs of the poor through people centered development/
Shift from WID to GAD is theoretical
1. Not a complete shift so far
2. It is political
3. Changing gendered attitude takes time
4. It costs
Gender and Development (GAD)
Gender and Development (GAD) came into being as a response to the perceived shortcomings
of women in development (WID) programs. GAD centered approaches are essentially based on
three premises:
1) Gender relations are fundamentally power relations;
2) Gender is a socio-cultural construction rather than a biological given;
3) Structural changes in gender roles and relations are possible. Central to GAD is the belief that
transforming unequal power relations between men and women is a prerequisite for achieving
sustainable improvements in women's lives.
The conceptual shift from "women" to "gender" created an opportunity to include a focus on
men and boys.
Gender Strategy for Women's, Children'sand Adolescents' Health (2016-2030)
This global strategy identifies adolescents as being central to achieving the Sustainable
Development Goals(SDGs).
Human rights-based approach (HRBA)
This entails consciously and systematically paying attention to human rights in all aspects of
programmed development. This approach is a conceptual framework for the process of human
development that is normatively based on international human rights standards and
operationally directed to promoting and protecting human rights. The objective of the HRBA is
to empower people (rights-holders)to realize their rights and strengthen the State (duty-
bearers)to comply with their human rights obligations and duties States' obligations to human
rights require them to respect,protect and fulfll women's and girls' rights, along with the rights of
men and boys. When they fail to do so, the United Nations has a responsibility to work with
partners to strengthen capacity to more effectively realize that duty.
Smart Economics
Advocated chiefly by the World Bank, smart economics is an approach to define gender equality
as an integral part of economic development and aims to spur development through investing
more efficiently in women and girls. It stresses that the gap between men and women in human
capital, economic opportunities and voice/agency is a chief obstacle in achieving more efficient
development. The Bank proclaimed that investing in women "speeds economic development by
raising productivity and promoting the more efficient use of resources; it produces significant
social returns, improving child survival and reducing fertility, and it has considerable
intergenerational pay-offs." Under smart economics, falls the business case' for gender equality
and the empowerment of women, by businesses and enterprises which are interested in
contributing to social good. A good example is the "Girl Effect initiative" of the Nike
Foundation.Women in Development (WID)
A Women in Development (WID) approach is based on the concept that women are
marginalized in developmentoriented interventions, with the result that women are often
excluded from the benefits of development. Hence, the overall objective is to ensure that
resources and interventions for development are used to improve the condition and position of
women.
Women in Development In the promotion of social and economic development refers to the
recognition of the important role of women in development and the promotion of development
aid that gives consideration to ensuring women's active participation in all levels of
development, not only as the beneficiaries of development.
The criteria for WID projects are carrying out opinion Surveys of women, adopting strategies to
promote women's participation, the presence of women as active participants and the
utilization of WID expertise.
In the midst of the general movement, led by the United Nations, to improve the status of
women, the WID concept has gained international momentum, and in 1983 the Development
Assistance Committee (DAC) in the Organization for Economic Cooperation and
Development(OECD) adopted the “WID Guiding Principles", which included the development of
the structure to promote WID(the Guiding Principles were revised in 1989).
Revised Guiding Principles on Women in Development, 1989
1. Clear statement on the importance of WID in the official aid policy document.
2. Formulation and review of WID-related guidelines and procedures.
3. Establishment of a management structure to promote WID policies.
4. Securing of resources for promotion of WID in aid agencies.
5. Implementation of training on WID issues for staff members of aid agencies.
6. Implementation of gender analysis of target population of aid projects.
The WID approach, however, does not necessarily result in changing male-female hierarchal
gender relations.Rather, it intends to support women-specific practical needs,such as women's
skills development for income generation.The fact that WID approaches do not analyze and
address power differentials in the relationship between women and men is seen as a major
shortcoming of this approach.WID oriented programs are often contrasted to Gender and
Development (GAD)-oriented programs.
Why is gender equality important?
Gender equality is intrinsically linked to sustainable development and is vital to the realization of
human rights for all.The overall objective of gender equality is a society in which women and
men enjoy the same opportunities,rights and obligations in all spheres of life. Equality between
men and women exists when both sexes are able to share equally in the distribution of power
and influence; have equal opportunities for financial independence through work or through
setting up businesses; enjoy equal access to education and the opportunity to develop personal
ambitions,interests and talents; share responsibility for the home and children and are
completely free from coercion, intimidation and gender-based violence both at work and at
home,
Within the context of population and development programs, gender equality is critical because
it will enable women and men to make decisions that impact more positively on their own
sexual and reproductive health as well as that of their spouses and families. Decision-making
with regard to such issues as age at marriage, the timing of births, use of contraception, and
recourse to harmful practices (such as female genital cutting) stands to be improved with the
achievement of gender equality.
However, it is important to acknowledge that where genderinequalityexists,itis generally women
who areexcluded or disadvantaged in relation to decision-making and access to economic and
social resources. Therefore a critical aspect of promoting gender equality is the empowerment
of women,with a focus on identifying and redressing power imbalances and giving women more
autonomy to manage their own lives.This would enable them to make decisions and take
actions to achieve and maintain their own reproductive and sexual health. Gender equality and
women's empowerment do not mean that men and women become the same; only that access
to opportunities and life changes is neither dependent on, nor constrained by, their sex.
