PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet

1.0 Statistics Mode

Place data in ascending order.

Mean Mode = most frequently occurring value (1.4)
∑ xi ∑ xi
μ= (1.1a) x= (1.1b) If two values occur with maximum frequency the data
N n
µ = population mean set is bimodal.
x = sample mean If three or more values occur with maximum
Σxi = sum of all data values (x1, x2, x3, …) frequency the data set is multi-modal.
N = size of population
n = size of sample Standard Deviation
∑(xi - μ)2
Median
σ= (Population) (1.5a)
N

Place data in ascending order. ∑(xi - x)2

If N is odd, median = central value (1.2) s= (Sample) (1.5b)
n ‒1
If N is even, median = mean of two central values
σ = population standard deviation
N = size of population s = sample standard deviation
xi = individual data value ( x1, x2, x3, …)
Range (1.5) 𝜇 = population mean
Range = xmax - xmin (1.3)
x = sample mean
N = size of population
xmax = maximum data value n = size of sample
xmin = minimum data value

2.0 Probability Independent Events

P (A and B and C) = PAPBPC (2.3)
Frequency
P (A and B and C) = probability of independent
nx events A and B and C occurring in sequence
fx = (2.1)
n PA = probability of event A

fx = relative frequency of outcome x

nx = number of events with outcome x Mutually Exclusive Events
n = total number of events
P (A or B) = PA + PB (2.4)

P (A or B) = probability of either mutually exclusive

Binomial Probability
event A or B occurring in a trial
(order doesn’t matter)
PA = probability of event A
n!(pk )(qn-k )
Pk = (2.2)
k!(n-k)!
Conditional Probability
Pk = binomial probability of k successes in n trials
( )∙ ( | )
p = probability of a success 𝑃(𝐴|𝐷) = (2.5)
q = 1 – p = probability of failure ( )∙ 𝐷𝐴 (~ )∙ ( |~ )
k = number of successes
n = number of trials P (A|D) = probability of event A given event D
P(A) = probability of event A occurring
P(~A) = probability of event A not occurring
P(D|~A) = probability of event D given event A did not occur

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc. EES IED POE DE CEA AE ES CIM EDD 1
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 3.0 Plane Geometry Ellipse Rectangle
2b
Circle Perimeter = 2a + 2b (3.9)
Area = π a b (3.8) 2a Area = ab (3.10)
Circumference =2 π r (3.1)
Area = π r2 (3.2)
Triangle (3.6) B
c
Parallelogram Area = ½ bh (3.11) a h
h a2 = b2 + c2 – 2bc·cos∠A (3.12)
Area = bh (3.3) A
b2 = a2 + c2 – 2ac·cos∠B (3.13) C b
b c2 = a2 + b2 – 2ab·cos∠C (3.14)

Right Triangle Regular Polygons

s(12 f) ns2
Area = n = 180 (3.15)
c 2 = a2 + b2 (3.4) 2 4tan༌
n
a c
sin θ = (3.5) a n = number of sides
c

cos θ =
b
(3.6) θ
c Trapezoid
a
b a
tan θ = b
(3.7)
Area = ½(a + b)h (3.16)
h

b
4.0 Solid Geometry

Cube Sphere

Volume = s3 (4.1) s Volume = π r3 (4.8)

Surface Area = 6s2 (4.2) s s Surface Area = 4 π r2 (4.9)

Rectangular Prism Cylinder

r
Volume = wdh (4.3) h
Volume = π r2 h (4.10) h
Surface Area = 2(wd + wh + dh) (4.4) w d
Surface Area = 2 π r h+2 π r2 (4.11)

Right Circular Cone

h Irregular Prism
πr2 h
Volume = (4.5)
3

Total Surface Area = π r2 + π r r2 +h2 r Volume = Ah (4.12) h

(4.6)
A = area of base
Pyramid

Ah h 5.0 Constants
Volume = (4.7)
3
A = area of base g = - 9.81 m/s2 = - 32.17 ft/s2
G = 6.67 x 10-11 m3/kg·s2
π = 3.14159
© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc. EES IED POE DE CEA AE ES CIM EDD 2
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 6.0 Conversions
Mass/Weight (6.1) Area (6.4) Pressure (6.8) Rotational Speed (6.11)
1 atm = 1.01325 bar 1 Hz = 60 rpm
1 kg = 2.205 lbm 1 acre = 4047 m2
= 33.9 ft H2O = 2π rad/sec
1 slug = 32.2 lbm = 43,560 ft2
= 29.92 in. Hg
1 ton = 2000 lb = 0.00156 mi2
= 760 mm Hg
1 lb = 16 oz
Volume (6.5) = 101,325 Pa
= 14.7 psi
Length (6.2)
1L = 0.264 gal 7.0 Defined Units
1psi = 2.31 ft of H2O
= 0.0353 ft3
1m = 3.28 ft = 33.8 fl oz Power (6.9) 1J = 1 N·m
1 km = 0.621 mi 1mL = 1 cm3 = 1 cc
1W = 3.412 Btu/h 1N = 1 kg·m / s2
1 in. = 2.54 cm
Temperature Unit = 0.00134 hp 1 Pa = 1 N / m2
1 mi = 5280 ft
Equivalents (6.6) = 14.34 cal/min 1V =1W/A
1 yd = 3 ft *Use equation in section 1W =1J/s
9.0 to convert = 0.7376 ft·lbf/s
1 hp = 550 ft∙lb/sec 1W = 1 V·A
Δ1 K = Δ 1 ºC 1 Hz = 1 s-1
Time (6.3) = Δ 1.8 ºF Energy (6.10) 1F = 1 A·s / V
1d = 24 h = Δ 1.8 ºR
1J = 0.239 cal 1H = 1 V·s / A
1h = 60 min Force (6.7)
= 9.48 x 10-4 Btu
1 min = 60 s
1N = 0.225 lb = 0.7376 ft·lbf
1 yr = 365 d
1 kip = 1,000 lb 1kW h = 3,600,000 J

8.0 SI Prefixes
Numbers Less Than One Numbers Greater Than One
Power Decimal Power Whole Number
Prefix Abbreviation Prefix Abbreviation
of 10 Equivalent of 10 Equivalent
10-1 0.1 deci- d 101 10 deca- da
10-2 0.01 centi- c 102 100 hecto- h
-3 3
10 0.001 milli- m 10 1000 kilo- k
10-6 0.000001 micro- µ 106 1,000,000 Mega- M
10-9 0.000000001 nano- n 109 1,000,000,000 Giga- G
-12 12
10 pico- p 10 Tera- T
10-15 femto- f 1015 Peta- P
10-18 atto- a 1018 Exa- E
-21
10 zepto- z 1021 Zetta- Z
-24 24
10 yocto- y 10 Yotta- Y

9.0 Equations Temperature Force and Moment

F = ma (9.7a) M = Fd (9.7b)
Mass and Weight TK = TC + 273 (9.4)
F = force
m = VDm (9.1) m = mass
TR = TF + 460 (9.5)
W = mg (9.2)
a = acceleration
TF = 9
Tc + 32 (9.6a) M = moment
W = VDw (9.3) d= perpendicular distance
TF - 32
V = volume TC = (9.6b)
1.8 Equations of Static Equilibrium
Dm = mass density
m = mass TK = temperature in Kelvin ΣFx = 0 ΣFy = 0 ΣMP = 0 (9.8)
Dw = weight density TC = temperature in Celsius
TR = temperature in Rankine Fx = force in the x-direction
W = weight
TF = temperature in Fahrenheit Fy = force in the y-direction
g = acceleration due to gravity
MP = moment about point P
© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc. EES IED POE DE CEA AE ES CIM EDD 3
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 9.0 (Continued) Equations Electricity
Ohm’s Law
Energy: Work Fluid Mechanics
V = IR (9.32)
W = F∥ ∙ d (9.9)
p=
F
(9.16)
A P = IV (9.33)
W = work V1 V2
F∥ = force parallel to direction of = (Charles’ Law) (9.17) RT (series) = R1 + R2+ ··· + Rn (9.34)
T1 T2
displacement p1 p2 1
d = displacement = (Gay-Lussac’s Law) (9.18) RT (parallel) = 1 1 1 (9.35)
T1 T2 + + ∙∙∙ +
R1 R2 Rn

p1V1 = p2V2 (Boyle’s Law) (9.19) Kirchhoff’s Current Law

Power
Q = Av (9.20) IT = I1 + I2 + ··· + In
E W
P= = (9.10) n
t t
A1v1 = A2v2 (9.21) or IT = ∑k=1 Ik (9.36)

P=τω (9.11)
P = Qp (9.22) Kirchhoff’s Voltage Law

P = power absolute pressure = gauge pressure VT = V1 + V2 + ··· + Vn

+ atmospheric pressure (9.23) n
E = energy or VT = ∑k=1 Vk (9.37)
W = work p = absolute pressure
t = time V = voltage
F = force
τ = torque A = area VT = total voltage
ω = angular velocity V = volume I = current
T = absolute temperature IT = total current
Q = flow rate R = resistance
Efficiency v = flow velocity RT = total resistance
P = power P = power
Pout
Efficiency (%) = ∙100% (9.12)
Pin
Mechanics Thermodynamics
Pout = useful power output d P = Q′ = AU∆T (9.38)
Pin = total power input s̅ = t
(9.24)
∆Q
∆d P = Q' = (9.39)
v= (9.25) ∆t
∆t 1 k
Energy: Potential vf vi U= = (9.40)
a= (9.26) R L
U = mgh (9.13) t
kA∆T
vi 2 sin(2θ) P= (9.41)
U = potential energy L
X= (9.27)
(9.42)
m =mass -g A1v1 = A2v2
g = acceleration due to gravity v = vi + at (9.28)
h = height Pnet = σAe(T4 -TC 4 ) (9.43)
d = di + vit + ½at2 PL
(9.29) k= (9.44)
A∆T
Energy: Kinetic v2 = v i2 + 2a(d – di) (9.30)
P = rate of heat transfer
τ = dFsinθ (9.31) Q = thermal energy
K = 12 mv2 (9.14)
A = area of thermal conductivity
s = average speed U = coefficient of heat conductivity
K = kinetic energy v = average velocity (U-factor)
m = mass v = velocity ∆T = change in temperature
v = velocity vi = initial velocity (t =0) ∆t = change in time
a = acceleration R = resistance to heat flow ( R-value)
X = range k = thermal conductivity
Energy: Thermal t = time v = velocity
∆Q = mc∆T (9.15)
∆d = change in displacement Pnet = net power radiated
d = distance W
di = initial distance (t=0) σ = 5.6696 x 10-8 m2 ∙K4
∆Q = change in thermal energy
g = acceleration due to gravity e = emissivity constant
m = mass
c = specific heat θ = angle L = thickness
∆T = change in temperature τ = torque T = temperature of radiator
F = force TC = temperature of surroundings

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

EES 4 POE 4 DE 4 AE 4 CIM 4
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 9.0 (Continued) Equations
Tolerance Analysis
Tolerance Loop Nominal Value = 𝜮 𝑁𝑜𝑚𝑖𝑛𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒𝑠 𝑖𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑜𝑜𝑝 (9.45)

RSS Maximum Battery Value = Nominal Battery Value- √𝜮 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 (9.46)

Worst Case Battery Value = Nominal Battery Value - 𝜮 𝑇𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒𝑠 (9.47)

Traffic Flow Rate

V
Q= t
(9.48)

𝜮
Q = (9.49)

𝐴=𝜋 (9.50)

Q = flow rate (ml/s)

V = volume
t = time (s)
A = area
Q = average flow rate
𝜮Q = sum of all flow rates

10.0 Section Properties

y
Moment of Inertia y
Rectangle Centroid

b h
x= and y = (10.3)
bh3 h 2 2
Ixx = (10.1) x x
12 Right Triangle Centroid
y
b
b h
x= and y = (10.4)
Ixx = moment of inertia of a rectangular section about 3 3

x axis x

Semi-circle Centroid y
Complex Shapes Centroid
4r
∑ xi A i ∑ yi Ai x = r and y = (10.5)
x= and y = (10.2) 3π
∑ Ai ∑ Ai x

x = x-distance to the centroid x = x-distance to the centroid

y = y-distance to the centroid y = y-distance to the centroid
xi = x distance to centroid of shape i
yi = y distance to centroid of shape i
Ai = Area of shape i

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet POE 5 AE 5 CEA 4
 11.0 Material 12.0 Structural Analysis

Stress (axial) Beam Formulas

P
F Reaction RA = RB = (12.1)
σ= A
(11.1) PL
2
Moment Mmax = (at point of load) (12.2)
4
σ = stress Deflection Δmax = PL
3
(at point of load) (12.3)
48EI
F = axial force
A = cross-sectional area ωL
Reaction RA = RB = (12.4)
2
2
ωL
Strain (axial) Moment Mmax = (at center) (12.5)
8
4
5ωL
Deflection Δmax = (at center) (12.6)
ε= (11.2) 384EI
L0
Reaction RA = RB = P (12.7)
ε = strain
L0 = original length Moment Mmax = Pa (12.8)
δ = change in length Pa
Deflection Δmax = 24EI 3L2 -4a2 (12.9)
(at center)
Modulus of Elasticity Reaction RA =
Pb
and RB =
Pa
(12.10)
L L
σ
E= (11.3) Moment Mmax =
Pab
(at Point of Load) (12.11)
ε L

(F2 -F1 )L0 Deflection Δmax = Pab(a+2b) 3a(a+2b)

27EIL
(12.12)
E= (11.4) a(a )
( )A (at x = when a>b )
,
E = modulus of elasticity
E = modulus of elasticity I = moment of inertia
σ = stress
ε = strain Deformation: Axial
A = cross-sectional area
FL0 Truss Analysis
δ=
F = axial force (12.13)
AE
δ = deformation 2J = M + R (12.14)
δ = deformation J = number of joints
F = axial force M =number of members
L0 = original length R = number of reaction forces
A = cross-sectional area
E = modulus of elasticity

13.0 Simple Machines

Mechanical Advantage (MA) Inclined Plane

DE FR
IMA= (13.1) AMA= (13.2)
DR FE
L
AMA IMA= (13.6)
% Efficiency= 100 (13.3) H
IMA

IMA = ideal mechanical advantage

AMA = actual mechanical advantage
DE = effort distance DR = resistance distance Wedge
FE = effort force FR = resistance force

L
IMA= (13.7)
H

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

EES 5 IED 4 POE 6
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 13.0 (Continued) Simple Machines
Lever Screw
C
IMA = (13.8)
1st Pitch
Class
1
Pitch = (13.9)
TPI
C = circumference
2nd r = radius
Class Pitch = distance between
threads
TPI = threads per inch

3rd
Class

Gear Ratio

TeethDriven DiameterDriven
Gear Ratio = =
TeethDriver DiameterDriver

Driver = Input Gear

Driven = Output Gear

14.0 Structural Design

Steel Beam Design: Shear Steel Beam Design: Moment Spread Footing Design
Vn Mn qnet = qallowable - pfooting (14.5)
Va ≤ (14.1) Ma ≤ (14.3)
Ωv Ωb lb
pfooting = tfooting ∙150 (14.6)
ft3
Vn = 0.6FyAw (14.2) Mn = FyZx (14.4)
P
q= (14.7)
A
Va = internal shear force Ma = internal bending moment
Vn = nominal shear strength Mn = nominal moment strength qnet = net allowable soil bearing
Ωv = 1.5 = factor of safety for shear Ωb = 1.67 = factor of safety for pressure
Fy = yield stress bending moment qallowable = total allowable soil
Aw = area of web Fy = yield stress bearing pressure
Zx = plastic section modulus about pfooting = soil bearing pressure
= allowable shear strength
neutral axis due to footing weight
= allowable bending strength tfooting = thickness of footing
q = soil bearing pressure
P = column load applied
A = area of footing

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 15.0 Storm Water Runoff 16.0 Water Supply

Storm Water Drainage Rational Method Runoff Hazen-Williams Formula

Coefficients 1.85
Q = CfCiA (15.1) 10.44LQ
Categorized by Surface hf = (16.1)
1.85 4.8655
C1 A1 + C2 A2 + ∙∙∙ Forested 0.059—0.2 C d
Cc = (15.2)
A1 + A2 + ∙∙∙ Asphalt 0.7—0.95 hf = head loss due to friction
Q = peak storm water runoff rate (ft3/s) Brick 0.7—0.85 (ft of H2O)
Cf = runoff coefficient adjustment factor Concrete 0.8—0.95 L = length of pipe (ft)
C = runoff coefficient Shingle roof 0.75—0.95 Q = water flow rate (gpm)
i = rainfall intensity (in./h) Lawns, well drained (sandy soil) C = Hazen-Williams constant
A = drainage area (acres) d = diameter of pipe (in.)
Up to 2% slope 0.05—0.1
2% to 7% slope 0.10—0.15
Runoff Coefficient Over 7% slope 0.15—0.2 Dynamic Head
Adjustment Factor Lawns, poor drainage (clay soil) dynamic head = static head
Up to 2% slope 0.13—0.17 – head loss (16.2)
Return Period Cf static head = change in elevation
2% to 7% slope 0.18—0.22
1, 2, 5, 10 1.0 between source and
Over 7% slope 0.25—0.35 discharge
25 1.1
Driveways, 0.75—0.85
50 1.2
walkways Categorized by Use
100 1.25
Farmland 0.05—0.3 17.0 Heat Loss/Gain
Pasture 0.05—0.3
Unimproved 0.1—0.3 Heat Loss/Gain
Parks 0.1—0.25
Cemeteries 0.1—0.25 Q′ = AU∆T (17.1)

Railroad yard 0.2—0.40 1

U= (17.2)
Playgrounds 0.2—0.35 R
(except asphalt
Business or
Districts Q = thermal energy
Neighborhood 0.5—0.7 A = area of thermal conductivity
City (downtown) 0.7—0.95 U = coefficient of heat
Residential conductivity (U-factor)
Single-family 0.3—0.5 ∆T = change in temperature
Multi-plexes, 0.4—0.6 R = resistance to heat flow (R-
detached
Multi-plexes, 0.6—0.75 value)
attached
Suburban 0.25—0.4
Apartments, 0.5—0.7
condominiumsIndustrial
Light 0.5—0.8
Heavy 0.6—0.9

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

CEA 5
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
18.0 Hazen-Williams Constants
Pipe Material Typical Range Clean New Pipe Typical Design Values
Cast Iron and Wrought Iron 80 - 150 130 100
Copper, Glass, or Brass 120 - 150 140 130
Cement-Lined Steel or Iron n/a 150 140
Plastic PVC or ABS 120 - 150 140 130
Steel (welded and seamless)
80 - 150 140 100
or interior riveted

19.0 Equivalent Length of (Generic) Fittings

Pipe Size
Screwed Fittings 1/4 3/8 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4
Regular 90 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Elbows Long radius 90 degree 1.5 2.0 2.2 2.3 2.7 3.2 3.4 3.6 3.6 4.0 4.6
Regular 45 degree 0.3 0.5 0.7 0.9 1.3 1.7 2.1 2.7 3.2 4.0 5.5
Line Flow 0.8 1.2 1.7 2.4 3.2 4.6 5.6 7.7 9.3 12.0 17.0
Tees Branch Flow 2.4 3.5 4.2 5.3 6.6 8.7 9.9 12.0 13.0 17.0 21.0
Return Regular 180 degree 2.3 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.4 8.5 9.3 11.0 13.0
Bends Globe 21.0 22.0 22.0 24.0 29.0 37.0 42.0 54.0 62.0 79.0 110.0
Gate 0.3 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.2 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.5
Valves Angle 12.8 15.0 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0 18.0
Swing Check 7.2 7.3 8.0 8.8 11.0 13.0 15.0 19.0 22.0 27.0 38.0
Strainer 4.6 5.0 6.6 7.7 18.0 20.0 27.0 29.0 34.0 42.0

Pipe Size
Flanged Fittings 1/2 3/4 1 1¼ 1½ 2 2½ 3 4 5 6 8 10 12 14 16 18
Regular 90 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Elbows Long radius 90 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.7 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
Regular 45 degree 0.5 0.6 0.8 1.1 1.3 1.7 2.0 2.5 3.5 4.5 5.6 7.7 9.0 11.0 13.0 15.0 16.0
Line Flow 0.7 0.8 1.0 1.3 1.5 1.8 1.9 2.2 2.8 3.3 3.8 4.7 5.2 6.0 6.4 7.2 7.6
Tees Branch Flow 2.0 2.6 3.3 4.4 5.2 6.6 7.5 9.4 12.0 15.0 18.0 24.0 30.0 34.0 37.0 43.0 47.0
Return Regular 180 degree 0.9 1.2 1.6 2.1 2.4 3.1 3.6 4.4 5.9 7.3 8.9 12.0 14.0 17.0 18.0 21.0 23.0
Bends Long radius 180 1.1 1.3 1.6 2.0 2.3 2.7 2.9 3.4 4.2 5.0 5.7 7.0 8.0 9.0 9.4 10.0 11.0
degree
Globe 38.0 40.0 45.0 54.0 59.0 70.0 77.0 94.0 120.0 150.0 190.0. 260.0 310.0 390.0
Gate 2.6 2.7 2.8 2.9 3.1 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2 3.2
Valves Angle 15.0 15.0 17.0 18.0 18.0 21.0 22.0 285.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0 160.0 190.0 210.0
Swing Check 3.8 5.3 7.2 10.0 12.0 17.0 21.0 27.0 38.0 50.0 63.0 90.0 120.0 140.0

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

CEA 6
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 20.0 555 Timer Design 21.A Boolean Algebra
quaons
T = 0.693 (RA + 2RB)C (20.1) Boolean Theorems Consensus Theorems
1 X• 0 = 0 (21.1) X + XY = X + Y (21.16)
f = (20.2)
T
X•1 = X (21.2) X + XY = X + Y (21.17)
(RA+ RB)
duty-cycle =
(RA+2RB)
∙100% (20.3) X• X =X (21.3) X + XY = X + Y (21.18)

T = period X • X=0 (21.4) X + XY = X + Y (21.19)

f = frequency X+0=X (21.5)
RA = resistance A DeMorgan’s Theorems
RB = resistance B X+1=1 (21.6)
C = capacitance X+X=X (21.7)
XY = X + Y (21.20)

X+X=1 (21.8)
X+Y = X • Y (21.21)

21.B Resistor Color Code X=X (21.9) Commutative Law

X•Y = Y•X (21.10)

X+Y = Y+X (21.11)

Associative Law
X(YZ) = (XY)Z (21.12)

X + (Y + Z) = (X + Y) + Z (21.13)

21.C Capacitor Distributive Law

Code X(Y+Z) = XY + XZ (21.14)

(X+Y)(W+Z) = XW+XZ+YW+YZ (21.15)

23.A G&M Codes

G00 = Rapid Traverse (23.1)

G01 = Straight Line Interpolation (23.2)
G02 = Circular Interpolation (clockwise) (23.3)
G03 = Circular Interpolation (c-clockwise) (23.4)
G04 = Dwell (wait) (23.5)
G05 = Pause for user intervention (23.6)
G20 = Inch programming units (23.7)
22.0 Speeds and Feeds G21 = Millimeter programming units (23.8)
G80 = Canned cycle cancel (23.9)
G81 = Drilling cycle (23.10)
CS 12in.
ft G82 = Drilling cycle with dwell (23.11)
N= (22.1)
πd 23.B Roll Angle G90 = Absolute Coordinates (23.12)
G91 = Relative Coordinates (23.13)
fm = ft·nt·N (22.2)
M00 = Pause (23.14)
Plunge Rate = ½·fm 𝜃Roll = 𝑇𝑎𝑛 M01 = Optional stop (23.15)
N = spindle speed (rpm) (23.26) M02 = End of program (23.16)
CS = cutting speed (ft/min) M03 = Spindle on (23.17)
d = diameter (in.) M05 = Spindle off (23.18)
fm = feed rate (in./min) M06 = Tool change (23.19)
ft = feed (in./tooth/rev) M08 = Accessory # 1 on (23.20)
nt = number of teeth M09 = Accessory # 1 off (23.21)
M10 = Accessory # 2 on (23.22)
M11 = Accessory # 2 off (23.23)
M30 = Program end and reset (23.24)
M47 = Rewind (23.25)
© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.
DE 5 CIM 5
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 24.0 Aerospace Propulsion Energy
F N = W vj - vo (24.4) K = 12 mv2 (24.8)
Forces of Flight
2D
I = Fave ∆t (24.5) GMm
CD = (24.1) U= (24.9)
Aρv2 Fnet = Favg - Fg (24.6) R

ρvl GMm
R e= (24.2) a= (24.7) E=U+K=− (24.10)
μ ∆t 2R
m3
2L FN = net thrust G = 6.67 × 10
CL = (24.3)
W = air mass flow kg ×
(24.11)
Aρv2
vo = flight velocity K = kinetic energy
Moment: See 9.7b
vj = jet velocity m = mass
I = total impulse v = velocity
CL = coefficient of lift Fave = average thrust force U = gravitational potential energy
CD = coefficient of drag Δt = change in time (thrust G = universal gravitation constant
L = lift duration) M = mass of central body
D = drag Fnet = net force m = mass of orbiting object
A = wing area Favg = average force R = Distance center main body to
ρ = density Fg = force of gravity center of orbiting object
Re = Reynolds number
vf = final velocity E = Total Energy of an orbit
v = velocity
a = acceleration MEarth= 5.97 x 1024 kg
l = length of fluid travel
Δt = change in time (thrust rEarth = 6.378 x 103 km
μ = fluid viscosity
duration)
F = force
NOTE: Fave and Favg are easily
m = mass Orbital Mechanics
confused.
g = acceleration due to gravity
M = moment b2
𝑒= 1- a2
(24.16)
Atmosphere Parameters
Bernoulli’s Law T = 15.04 - 0.00649h (24.13) a a
T = 2π = 2π (24.17)
ρv2 ρv2 (T + 273.1) 5.256 √μ √GM
Ps + = Ps + (24.12) p = 101.29 (24.14)
2 1 2 2 GMm
288.08
F= (24.18)
p r2
PS = static pressure ρ= (24.15)
v = velocity 0.2869(T + 273.1) 𝑒 = eccentricity
ρ = density T = temperature b = semi-minor axis
h = height a =semi-major axis
p = pressure T = orbital period
ρ = density a = semi-major axis
μ = gravitational parameter
F = force of gravity between two
bodies
G = universal gravitation constant
M =mass of central body
m = mass of orbiting object
r = distance between center of two
objects
25.0 Environmental Sustainability

colonies/mL = # colonies/dilution (25.1)

# of transformants final volume at recovery
Transformation Efficiency (# Transformants/μg) =
μg of DNA
∙ volume plated (mL)
(25.2)

# of moles of CO2 # of moles consumed in experiment

= (25.3)
# of moles of glucose produced in formula # of moles of glucose produced in experiment
GDP2 - GDP1
Economic Growth = (25.4)
GDP1
GDP = gross domestic product
distance the substance travels Rf = retention factor
Rf = (25.5)
distance the solvent travels

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

ES 4 AE 6
PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet
 26.0 USCS Soil Classification Chart

© 2024 Project Lead The Way, Inc.

PLTW Engineering Formula Sheet CEA 7