ORIENTAL COLLEGE OF TECHNOLOGY, BHOPAL

Programme: B.Tech Branch: AIML Semester: IV

Subject code: AL401

SET
Set Theory is a branch of mathematical logic where we learn sets and their properties. A set
is a collection of objects or groups of objects. These objects are often called elements or
members of a set. For example, a group of players in a cricket team is a set.

Since the number of players in a cricket team could be only 11 at a time, thus we can say,
this set is a finite set. Another example of a finite set is a set of English vowels. But there are
many sets that have infinite members such as a set of natural numbers, a set of whole
numbers, set of real numbers, set of imaginary numbers, etc.

Definition of Sets

As we have already learned in the introduction, set is a well-defined collection of objects or

people. Sets can be related to many real-life examples, such as the number of rivers in India,
number of colours in a rainbow, etc.

Representation of Sets

Sets can be represented in two ways:

1. Roster Form or Tabular form

2. Set Builder Form

Roster Form

In roster form, all the elements of the set are listed, separated by commas and enclosed
between curly braces { }.

Example: If set represents all the leap years between the year 1995 and 2015, then it would
be described using Roster form as:

A ={1996,2000,2004,2008,2012}

Now, the elements inside the braces are written in ascending order. This could be
descending order or any random order. As discussed before, the order doesn’t matter for a
set represented in the Roster Form.

Set Builder Form

In set builder form, all the elements have a common property. This property is not
applicable to the objects that do not belong to the set.

Example: If set S has all the elements which are even prime numbers, it is represented as:

S={ x: x is an even prime number}

where ‘x’ is a symbolic representation that is used to describe the element.

Types of Sets

The sets are further categorised into different types, based on elements or types of
elements. These different types of sets in basic set theory are:

• Finite set: The number of elements is finite

• Infinite set: The number of elements are infinite

• Empty set: It has no elements

• Singleton set: It has one only element

• Equal set: Two sets are equal if they have same elements

• Equivalent set: Two sets are equivalent if they have same number of elements

• Power set: A set of every possible subset.

• Universal set: Any set that contains all the sets under consideration.

• Subset: When all the elements of set A belong to set B, then A is subset of B

Set Theory Symbols

There are several symbols that are adopted for common sets. They are given in the table
below:

Table 1: Symbols denoting common sets

Symbol Corresponding Set

Represents the set of all Natural numbers i.e. all the positive integers.

N This can also be represented by Z+.

Examples: 9, 13, 906, 607, etc.

Z Represents the set of all integers

 The symbol is derived from the German word Zahl, which means number.

Positive and negative integers are denoted by Z + and Z– respectively.

Examples: -12, 0, 23045, etc.

Represents the set of Rational numbers

The symbol is derived from the word Quotient. It is defined as the quotient of two integers
Q (with non-zero denominator)

Positive and negative rational numbers are denoted by Q+ and Q– respectively.

Examples: 13/9. -6/7, 14/3, etc.

Represents the Real numbers i.e. all the numbers located on the number line.

R Positive and negative real numbers are denoted by R+ and R– respectively.

Examples: 4.3, π, 4√ 3, etc.

Represents the set of Complex numbers.

C
Examples: 4 + 3i, i, etc.

Other Notations

Symbol Symbol Name

{} Set

A∪B A union B

A∩B A intersection B

A⊆B A is subset of B

A⊄B A is not subset B

A⊂B proper subset / strict subset

A⊃B proper superset / strict superset

A⊇B Superset

A⊅B not superset

Ø empty set

P (C) power set

A=B Equal set

Ac Complement of A

a∈B a element of B

x∉A x not element of A

Set Theory Formulas

• n( A ∪ B ) = n(A) +n(B) – n (A ∩ B)

• n(A∪B)=n(A)+n(B) {when A and B are disjoint sets}

• n(U)=n(A)+n(B)–n(A∩B)+n((A∪B)c)

• n(A∪B)=n(A−B)+n(B−A)+n(A∩B)

• n(A−B)=n(A∩B)−n(B)

• n(A−B)=n(A)−n(A∩B)

• n(Ac)=n(U)−n(A)

• n(PUQUR)=n(P)+n(Q)+n(R)–n(P⋂Q)–n(Q⋂R)–n(R⋂P)+n(P⋂Q⋂R)

Set Operations

The four important set operations that are widely used are:

• Union of sets

• Intersection of sets

• Complement of sets

• Difference of sets

Problems and Solutions

Q.1: If U = {a, b, c, d, e, f}, A = {a, b, c}, B = {c, d, e, f}, C = {c, d, e},

find (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C).
Solution: A ∩ B = {a, b, c} ∩ {c, d, e, f}

A∩B={c}
A ∩ C = { a, b, c } ∩ { c, d, e }
A∩C={c}
∴ (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C) = { c }
Q.2: Give examples of finite sets.
Solution: The examples of finite sets are:
Set of months in a year
Set of days in a week
Set of natural numbers less than 20
Set of integers greater than -2 and less than 3

Q.3: If U = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}, A = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11} and B = {7, 8, 9,

10, 11}, Then find (A – B)′.
Solution: A – B is a set of member which belong to A but do not belong to B
∴ A – B = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11} – {7, 8, 9, 10, 11}
A – B = {3, 5}
According to formula,
(A − B)′ = U – (A – B)
∴ (A − B)′ = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11} – {3, 5}
(A − B)′ = {2, 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11}.

Q.4.Write the solution set of the equation x 2 – 4=0 in roster form.

Solution: x2 – 4 = x2 – 22 = (x – 2) (x + 2)

x = 2, -2

Thus, A = {-2, 2}

Q.5.Write the set A = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, . . . } in set-builder form.

Solution: If we see the pattern here, the numbers are squares of natural numbers, such as:

12 = 1

22 = 4

32 = 9

42 = 16

And so on.
A = {x : x is the square of a natural number}

Or we can write;

A = {x : x = n2 , where n ∈ N}

Q.6. Write an example of a finite and infinite set in set builder form.

Solution:

Finite set, A = {x : x ∈ N and (x – 1) (x – 2) = 0}

Infinite Set, B = {x : x ∈ N and x is prime}

Q.7. Write an example of equal sets.

Solution: Let there be two sets A and B

A is the set of letters in “ALLOY”

B is the set of letters in “LOYAL”

Hence,

A = {A,L, O,Y}

B = {L,O,Y,A}

Therefore, in both sets, the elements are the same.

So, A = B.

Q.8.Write {x: x ∈ R, 3 ≤ x ≤ 4} as an interval.

Solution: {x: x ∈ R, 3 ≤ x ≤ 4} = [3, 4]

Q.9.Write the interval (6, 12) in set builder form.

Solution:

Let A be the interval (6, 12).

The interval (6, 12) in set builder form is

A = {x: x ∈ R, 6 < x < 12}

Q.10. If set A = {1, 3, 5}, B = {2, 4, 6} and C = {0, 2, 4, 6, 8}. Then write the universal set for
all three sets.
Solution: If U is the universal set for sets A, B and C, then: U = Elements of set A + Elements
of set B + Elements of set C

U = {0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 8}

Sets Subset And Superset

Union of sets: If A and B are two sets, then A union B will have all the elements of set A and set B. It is
represented as A ∪ B.

Intersection of sets: If A and B are two sets, then A intersection B will have common elements of set
A and set B. It is represented as A ∩ B.

Q.11. If A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A ∪ B.

Solution: A ∪ B = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12}

Q.12. If A = { 2, 4, 6, 8} and B = { 6, 8, 10, 12}. Find A ∩ B.

Solution: A ∩ B = { 6, 8 }

Operation On Sets Intersection Of Sets And Difference Of Two Sets

Properties of Union of Sets Properties of Intersection of sets

A ∪ B = B ∪ A (Commutative law) A ∩ B = B ∩ A (Commutative law)

(A ∪ B ) ∪ C = A ∪ ( B ∪ C) (Associative law ) ( A ∩ B ) ∩ C = A ∩ ( B ∩ C ) (Associative law)

A ∪ φ = A (Law of identity element, φ is the identity φ ∩ A = φ, U ∩ A = A (Law of φ and U)

of ∪)

A ∪ A = A (Idempotent law) A ∩ A = A (Idempotent law)

U ∪ A = U (Law of U) A ∩ ( B ∪ C ) = ( A ∩ B ) ∪ ( A ∩ C ) (Distributive
law )

Q.13. If A = {1, 2, 3, 4}, B = {3, 4, 5, 6}, C = {5, 6, 7, 8}. Find A ∪ B ∪ C.

Solution: A ∪ B ∪ C = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

Q.14. If A = {3, 5, 7, 9, 11}, B = {7, 9, 11, 13}, C = {11, 13, 15}. Find A ∩ (B ∪ C).

Solution:

As we know, A ∩ (B ∪ C) = (A ∩ B) ∪ (A ∩ C)

= {7, 9, 11} ∪ {11}

= {7, 9, 11}

Difference of sets: If A and B are two sets, then the difference of set A and set B is a set that has
elements of only set A, not B. It is represented as A – B.

Q.15. If A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6}, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }. Find A – B and B – A.

Solution: A – B = { 1, 3, 5 }

B–A={8}

Clearly, A – B ≠ B – A

Complement of set: If A is a subset of universal set U, then the complement of a set A is the set that
does not have any elements of A. It is denoted as A′.

A′ = {x : x ∈ U and x ∉ A }

A′ = U – A

Q.16. If U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10} and A = {1, 3, 5, 7, 9}. Find A′.

Solution: A′ = { 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 }

If A = {3, 5, 7, 9, 10}, B = {7, 9, 10, 13}, and C = {10, 13, 15}. Find (A ∩ B) ∩ ( B ∪ C).

Ans. Given sets are:

A = {3, 5, 7, 9, 10}

B = {7, 9, 10, 13}

C = {10, 13, 15}

A ∩ B = {7, 9, 10}

B ∪ C = {7, 9, 10, 13, 15}

(A ∩ B) ∩ (B ∪ C) = {7, 9, 10}

Q.17.Given, X = {a, b, c, d} and Y = {f, b, d, g}, determine the final value of X – Y and Y – X.

Ans. Given Sets are:

X = {a, b, c, d}

Y = {f, b, d, g}

X – Y = {a, b, c, d} – {f, b, d, g} = {a, c}

Y – X = {f, b, d, g} – {a, b, c, d} = {f, g}

Q.18. Represent the given sets in the Roster Form.

(i) A = {x | x is a positive integer which is less than 10 and 2 x – 1 is an odd number}

(ii) B = {x : x2 + 7x – 8 = 0, x ∈ R}

Ans. (i) Since 2x is an even number, 2x – 1 is an odd number for all positive integral values of
x.

In simpler terms, 2x – 1 is an odd number for x = 1, 2, … , 9.

Thus, A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

Q.19.Given sets are A = {a, b}, and B = {a, b, c}. Is A ⊂ B? Find A ∪ B.

Ans. Given sets are

• B = {a, b, c}

• A = {a, b}

Yes, A ⊂ B, Therefore, the union of the set's pairings can be expressed as

A∪ B = {a, b, c} = B

Q.20. If U = {x : x ∈ N, x ≤ 9}, A = {x : x is an even number, 0 < x < 10}, and B = {2, 3, 5, 7},
what will be the Set (A U B)?

Ans. It is given that,

U = {x : x ∈ N, x ≤ 9}

A = {x : x is an even number, 0 < x < 10}

 B = {2, 3, 5, 7}

Thus, in roster form, the sets will be

U = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9}

A = {2, 4, 6, 8}

A U B = {2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8}

(A U B)’ = {1, 9}

Q.21. Let A and B be two finite sets such that n(A) = 20, n(B) = 28 and n(A ∪ B) = 36,

find n(A ∩ B).

Solution:

Using the formula n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B).

then n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 20 + 28 - 36

= 48 - 36

= 12

Q.22.If n(A - B) = 18, n(A ∪ B) = 70 and n(A ∩ B) = 25, then find n(B).

Solution:

Using the formula n(A∪B) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B) + n(B - A)

70 = 18 + 25 + n(B - A)

70 = 43 + n(B - A)

n(B - A) = 70 - 43

n(B - A) = 27

Now n(B) = n(A ∩ B) + n(B - A)

 = 25 + 27

= 52

Q.23.In a group of 60 people, 27 like cold drinks and 42 like hot drinks and each person likes
at least one of the two drinks. How many like both coffee and tea?

Solution:

Let A = Set of people who like cold drinks.

B = Set of people who like hot drinks.

Given

(A ∪ B) = 60 n(A) = 27 n(B) = 42 then;

n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 27 + 42 - 60

= 69 - 60 = 9

=9

Therefore, 9 people like both tea and coffee.

Q.24.There are 35 students in art class and 57 students in dance class. Find the number of
students who are either in art class or in dance class.

• When two classes meet at different hours and 12 students are enrolled in both activities.

• When two classes meet at the same hour.

Solution:

n(A) = 35, n(B) = 57, n(A ∩ B) = 12

(Let A be the set of students in art class.

B be the set of students in dance class.)

(i) When 2 classes meet at different hours n(A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)
 = 35 + 57 - 12

= 92 - 12

= 80

(ii) When two classes meet at the same hour, A∩B = ∅ n (A ∪ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= n(A) + n(B)

= 35 + 57

= 92

Q.25.In a group of 100 persons, 72 people can speak English and 43 can speak French. How
many can speak English only? How many can speak French only and how many can speak
both English and French?

Solution:

Let A be the set of people who speak English.

B be the set of people who speak French.

A - B be the set of people who speak English and not French.

B - A be the set of people who speak French and not English.

A ∩ B be the set of people who speak both French and English.

Given,

n(A) = 72 n(B) = 43 n(A ∪ B) = 100

Now, n(A ∩ B) = n(A) + n(B) - n(A ∪ B)

= 72 + 43 - 100

= 115 - 100

= 15
Therefore, Number of persons who speak both French and English = 15

n(A) = n(A - B) + n(A ∩ B)

⇒ n(A - B) = n(A) - n(A ∩ B)

= 72 - 15

= 57

and n(B - A) = n(B) - n(A ∩ B)

= 43 - 15

= 28

Therefore, Number of people speaking English only = 57

Number of people speaking French only = 28

Q.26.In a competition, a school awarded medals in different categories. 36 medals in dance,

12 medals in dramatics and 18 medals in music. If these medals went to a total of 45
persons and only 4 persons got medals in all the three categories, how many received
medals in exactly two of these categories?

Solution:

Let A = set of persons who got medals in dance.

B = set of persons who got medals in dramatics.

C = set of persons who got medals in music.

Given,

n(A) = 36 n(B) = 12 n(C) = 18

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 45 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4

We know that number of elements belonging to exactly two of the three sets A, B, C

= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

= n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) - 3 × 4 ……..(i)

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(A ∩ C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Therefore, n(A ∩ B) + n(B ∩ C) + n(A ∩ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A ∪ B ∪ C)

From (i) required number

= n(A) + n(B) + n(C) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C) - n(A ∪ B ∪ C) - 12

= 36 + 12 + 18 + 4 - 45 - 12

= 70 - 57

= 13

Q.27.Each student in a class of 40 plays at least one indoor game chess, carrom and
scrabble. 18 play chess, 20 play scrabble and 27 play carrom. 7 play chess and scrabble, 12
play scrabble and carrom and 4 play chess, carrom and scrabble. Find the number of
students who play (i) chess and carrom. (ii) chess, carrom but not scrabble.

Solution:

Let A be the set of students who play chess

B be the set of students who play scrabble

C be the set of students who play carrom

Therefore, We are given n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = 40,

n(A) = 18, n(B) = 20 n(C) = 27,

n(A ∩ B) = 7, n(C ∩ B) = 12 n(A ∩ B ∩ C) = 4

We have

n(A ∪ B ∪ C) = n(A) + n(B) + n(C) - n(A ∩ B) - n(B ∩ C) - n(C ∩ A) + n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

Therefore, 40 = 18 + 20 + 27 - 7 - 12 - n(C ∩ A) + 4
40 = 69 – 19 - n(C ∩ A)

40 = 50 - n(C ∩ A) n(C ∩ A) = 50 - 40

n(C ∩ A) = 10

Therefore, Number of students who play chess and carrom are 10.

Also, number of students who play chess, carrom and not scrabble.

= n(C ∩ A) - n(A ∩ B ∩ C)

= 10 – 4

=6

The Distributive Law of Intersection over Union

If A, B, and C are sets, then A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C).

Proof

Let’s assume that: A, B, and C are sets.

To prove: A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C).

We must prove: (a) A∩(B∪C)⊆(A∩B)∪(A∩C).

Let x be an arbitrary element of A∩(B∪C)

Let x∈A∩(B∪C):

x∈A∩(B∪C)⇒x∈A and (x∈B or x∈C) [def. of union and intersection]

⇒(x∈A and x∈B) or (x∈A and x∈C) [distributive law of logic]

⇒(x∈A∩B) or (x∈A∩C) [def. of intersection]

⇒x∈(A∩B)∪(A∩C) [def. of union]

Hence, A∩(B∪C)⊆(A∩B)∪(A∩C).

We must also prove (b) (A∩B)∪(A∩C)⊆A∩(B∪C).

x∈(A∩B)∪(A∩C)⇒(x∈A∩B)or (x∈A∩C) [def. of union]

⇒(x∈A and x∈B) or (x∈A and x∈C) [def. of intersection]

⇒x∈A and (x∈B or x∈C) [distributive law of logic]

⇒x∈A∩(B∪C) [def. of intersection]

Hence, (A∩B)∪(A∩C)⊆A∩(B∪C).

From a) and b) we get,

A∩(B∪C)=(A∩B)∪(A∩C).

If A, B, and C are any sets, then A×(B∩C)=(A×B)∩(A×C).

Proof: Now, on to the actual proof. We need to prove

a. A×(B∩C)⊆(A×B)∩(A×C).
Let (x,y)∈A×(B∩C)
⇒x∈A and y∈(B∩C) [By def. of ordered pair]

⇒x∈A and (y∈B and y∈C) [By def. of Intersection]

⇒(x∈A and y∈B) and (x∈A and y∈C) [By def. of ordered pair]

⇒(x,y)∈(A×B) and (x,y)∈(A×C) [By def. of ordered pair]

⇒(x,y)∈(A×B)∩(A×C) [By def. of Intersection]

Therefore, A×(B∩C)⊆(A×B)∩(A×C).

b. (A×B) ∩ (A×C) ⊆ A×(B∩C).

Let (x,y) ∈ (A×B)∩(A×C).
⇒(x,y) ∈ A×B and (x,y) ∈ A×C [By def. of Intersection]

⇒(x∈A and y∈B) and (x∈A and y∈C) [By def. of ordered pair]

⇒x∈A and (y∈B and y∈C) [By def. of Intersection]

⇒x∈A and y∈(B∩C) [By def. of Intersection]

⇒(x,y) ∈ A×(B∩C) [By def. of ordered pair]

Therefore, (A×B) ∩ (A×C) ⊆ A×(B∩C).

From a) and b) we get,

A×(B∩C)=(A×B)∩(A×C)
Let A and B be sets. Then (A∩B)∪(A∩Bc)=A.

Proof

(A∩B)∪(A∩Bc)=A∩(B∪Bc) [By distributive law]

=A∩U [By definition of Universal set]

=A [By definition of Intersection]

Let A,B,C be sets. If A⊆B and B∩C=∅, then A∩C=∅.

Proof

Assume A⊆B and B∩C=∅, and A∩C≠∅.

To prove that this cannot occur

let x∈A∩C.

x∈A∩C⇒x∈A and x∈C⇒x∈B

and x∈C⇒x∈B∩C.

But this contradicts the second premise. Hence, the theorem is proven.

Prove the following using the set theory laws, as well as any other theorems proved so far.

a. A∪(B−A)=A∪B

b. A−B=Bc−Ac

c. A⊆B,A∩C≠∅⇒B∩C≠∅

d. A∩(B−C)=(A∩B)−(A∩C)

e. A−(B∪C)=(A−B)∩(A−C)

Answer

a. Here:
A∪(B−A)=A∪(B∩Ac)

=(A∪B)∩(A∪A c) by the distributive law

=(A∪B)∩U by the null law

=(A∪B) by the identity law.

b. Now: A−B=A∩Bc

=Bc∩A=Bc∩(Ac)c

=Bc−Ac.

c. Select any element, x∈A∩C.

One such element exists since A∩C is not empty.

x∈A∩C

⇒x∈A and x∈C

⇒x∈B and x∈C

⇒x∈B∩C

⇒B∩C≠∅.

d. We'll start with the right side of this identity.

(A∩B)−(A∩C)=A∩B∩(A∩C) c

=A∩B∩(Ac∪Cc)

=(A∩B∩Ac)∪(A∩B∩Cc)

=∅∪A∩(B∩Cc)=A∩(B−C).

e. Here:

A−(B∪C)=A∩(B∪C)c=A∩(Bc∩Cc)=(A∩Bc)∩(A∩Cc)=(A−B)∩(A−C).
What is a Relation?

A relation R from a set A to a set B is a subset of the Cartesian product A×B.

• That is, R⊆A×B.

• It is a set of ordered pairs (a,b), where a∈A and b∈B.

Example:
Let A={1,2}, B={3,4}.
A possible relation R={(1,3),(2,4)}.

2. Types of Relations

(i) Reflexive Relation

• A relation R on a set A is reflexive if

∀a∈A, (a,a)∈R

• Example:
On A={1,2} , R={(1,1),(2,2)}.

(ii) Symmetric Relation

• A relation R is symmetric if

(a,b)∈R⇒(b,a)∈R(a,b)

• Example:
If (1,2)∈R(1,2) , then (2,1) must also be in R.

(iii) Transitive Relation

• A relation RRR is transitive if

(a,b)∈R and (b,c)∈R⇒(a,c)∈R

• Example:
If (1,2)∈R and (2,3)∈R, then (1,3) must also be in R.

(iv) Equivalence Relation

• A relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive.

• Example:
"Congruence modulo n" on integers.
(v) Partial Ordering Relation

• A relation that is reflexive, antisymmetric, and transitive.

• Example:
"Less than or equal to" (≤) on numbers.

3. Representation of Relations

• Matrix representation: Using 0s and 1s.

• Graphical representation: Using directed graphs (digraphs).

4. Important Terminologies

Term Meaning

Domain Set of all first elements in relation

Range Set of all second elements in relation

Inverse Relation Set obtained by swapping each pair in the relation

Composition of Relations Combining two relations

5. Examples

Example 1:

Given A={1,2} and B={3,4}, find all possible relations.

• Cartesian Product:
A×B={(1,3),(1,4),(2,3),(2,4)}

• Possible relations are any subset of A×B

Q1.

Let A={1,2,3}. Define relation R={(1,1),(2,2),(3,3),(1,2),(2,3)} on A.

Check whether R is:

• Reflexive

• Symmetric

• Transitive
 Solution:

• Reflexive:
(1,1),(2,2),(3,3)(1,1), (2,2), (3,3)(1,1),(2,2),(3,3) are present.
Yes, R is reflexive.

• Symmetric:
(1,2) is there, but (2,1) is not in R.
No, R is not symmetric.

• Transitive:
(1,2) and (2,3) are there, but (1,3) should be there (it's missing).
No, R is not transitive.

Q2.

Define relation R on integers Z as:

a R b if and only if a−b is divisible by 5

Prove that R is an equivalence relation.

Solution:

• Reflexive:
a−a=0 is divisible by 5.
Yes its reflexive.

• Symmetric:
If a−b divisible by 5, then b−a=−(a−b) also divisible by 5.
Symmetric.

• Transitive:
If a−b and b−c divisible by 5, then

(a−b)+(b−c)=a−c divisible by 5.
Transitive.

Thus, R is an equivalence relation.

 Q3.

Find the Hasse diagram for the divisibility relation on set {1,2,4,8}.

Solution:

• Divisibility pairs:
1∣2,1∣4,1∣8,2∣4,2∣8,4∣8

• Hasse Diagram:

• Explanation: 1 divides 2, 2 divides 4, and 4 divides 8 — forming a vertical chain.

Q4.

If A={x,y} and B={1,2}, list all possible relations from A to B.

Solution:

• Cartesian product A×B={(x,1),(x,2),(y,1),(y,2)}

• Possible relations are any subset of A×B.

• Total number of relations = 24=16 relations.

(Examples: {}, {(x,1)}, {(x,2), (y,1)}, etc.)

 Q5.

Suppose R is a relation on set A={1,2,3} such that

R={(1,2),(2,3),(1,3)}

Is R transitive?

Solution:

• (1,2) and (2,3) are present. (1,3) is also present.

Therefore, R is transitive.

What is a POSET?

• A POSET stands for Partially Ordered Set.

• It is a set equipped with a binary relation that satisfies:

1. Reflexivity
a≤a, ∀a∈P

2. Antisymmetry
(a≤b and b≤a)⇒a=b

3. Transitivity
(a≤b and b≤c)⇒a≤c

Here, "≤" can represent any ordering relation like divides (|), subset (⊆), etc.

2. Formal Definition

A POSET is a pair (P,≤) where:

• P is a non-empty set.

• ≤ is a partial order on P.

3. Examples of POSETs

Set P Relation ≤ Description

N (natural numbers) "divides" (( ))

Subsets of a set (⊆) A⊆B

Set P Relation ≤ Description

4. Hasse Diagram

• Graphical representation of a POSET.

• Rules:

o No loops (reflexivity is understood).

o No arrows (assumed upward).

o No transitive edges (only direct relations are shown).

Example Hasse Diagram:

For P={1,2,4} with "divides" relation:

5. Key Terms in POSETs

Term Meaning

Minimal Element No element smaller than it (except itself).

Maximal Element No element greater than it (except itself).

Greatest Element Larger than every other element.

Least Element Smaller than every other element.

6. Important Properties

• Every finite POSET has at least one minimal and one maximal element.

• Greatest and least elements, if they exist, are unique.

7. Total Order vs Partial Order

Aspect Partial Order Total Order

Comparability Not every pair is comparable Every pair is comparable

Example Divides relation Numbers with ≤

2. Subset Relation on {∅, {a}, {b}, {a,b}}

• Set: Powerset of {a, b}:

P({a,b})={∅,{a},{b},{a,b}}

• Relation: A⊆B

Pairs:

(∅,{a}),(∅,{b}),({a},{a,b})

Hasse Diagram:

{a,b}

/ \

{a} {b}

\ /

3.Divisibility on {1, 3, 9}

Set: P={1,3,9}P = \{1, 3, 9\}P={1,3,9}

Relation: Divides (∣|∣).

Pairs: (1,3),(1,9),(3,9)(1,3), (1,9), (3,9)(1,3),(1,9),(3,9)

Hasse Diagram:

3
|