Stress -strain diagrams

Metal
Forming

𝐏 𝝈𝒇 = 𝑲 ∈𝒏
𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝛔𝟎 =
𝐀𝟎 𝝈𝒇 = 𝑭𝒍𝒐𝒘 𝒔𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
K=Strength Coefficient
∆𝐋 n=Strain hardening Exponent, n=0 – 1 ( 0<n<1 ) ,
𝐄𝐧𝐠𝐢𝐧𝐞𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 = 𝐞 =
𝐋𝟎 n=0 (perfectly Plastic), n=1 (perfectly elastic)
𝐏
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝛔𝐭 =
𝐀
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐞𝐬𝐬 = 𝝈𝒕 = 𝝈𝟎 (1+e) 1) Material is Elastic - plastic
𝐋 𝐝𝐋 𝐋 𝝈𝟎 = 𝝈𝒎𝒇 = 𝝈𝒚
𝐓𝐫𝐮𝐞 𝐬𝐭𝐫𝐚𝐢𝐧 = ∈= න = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝐞)
𝐋𝟎 𝐋 𝐋𝟎
2) Material is Elastic with linear strain hardening
𝐋𝐟 𝐀𝟎 𝝈𝒚 + 𝝈𝒖𝒕𝒔
∈= 𝐥𝐧(𝟏 + 𝐞) = 𝐥𝐧 = 𝐥𝐧 𝝈𝟎 =
𝐋𝟎 𝐀𝐟 𝟐
P= Load Applied 3) Material is Elastic with strain hardening
A0 =Initial C/S area (A=Instantaneous C/S area) 𝑲 ∈𝒏
L0 = Initial length ( L= Instantaneous length) 𝝈𝒂𝒗𝒈. = 𝝈𝟎 =
𝒏+𝟏

Recrystallization Temperature (Rx temp.)

• It is the minimum temp at which new crystals begin to
form, so that dislocation density at grain boundaries will
die out
• “The minimum temperature at which the completed
Hot and recrystallization of a cold worked metal occurs within a
specified time”.
Cold Working • Rc temp. depends on the amount of cold work a
material has already received. The higher the cold work,
the lower would be the Rx temp.
• Rc temp. is increasing , strength will decrease and
increases ductility.
• It involves replacement of cold‐worked structure by a Hot working
new set of strain‐free, approximately equi‐axed grains to
replace all the deformed crystals.
• Rc temp. varies between 1/3 to 1/2 melting point
temp.
• Recovery temperature is 0.3 Tm and during this process
highly distorted crystals will die out.
• Recrystallization is the process in which old grains
structure starts disintegrating and extremely new grains
with small size stress free grains are formed
• Grain growth follows complete crystallization if the
material left at elevated temperature.

Hot working Limitations:

Working above recrystallization temp.  It requires expensive tools.
Advantages:  It produces poor surface finish, due to the
 The porosity of the metal is largely eliminated.
rapid oxidation and scale formation on the
 The grain structure of the metal is refined.
 The impurities like slag are squeezed into fibers and metal surface.
distributed throughout the metal.  Due to shrinkage of the material, close
 Since there is a recovery at every stage, no strain dimensional tolerance cannot be maintained.
hardening and no cracks
 The mechanical properties such as toughness,
percentage elongation, percentage reduction in area,
and resistance to shock and vibration are improved due
to the refinement of grains.

Cold working Cold working

Working below recrystallization temp.
Advantages:
Better accuracy, surface finish and close tolerances
Strain hardening increases strength and hardness
 Grain flow during deformation can cause desirable
directional properties in product
No heating of work required (less total energy)
Disadvantages: Warm working
Force required to deform is high due to strain  It is the plastic deformation of a metal at
hardening temperature below the temperature range for
Equipment of higher forces and power is required recrystallization and above room temperature.
Ductility and strain hardening limit the amount of  It attempts to combine the advantages of both
forming that can be done hot and cold working into one operation.
In some operations, metal must be annealed to
allow further deformation
Some metals are simply not ductile enough to be
cold worked.

Chapter 14
Q. No. Answer
1 B
2 C
3 A
4 A
5 D

ROLLING
6 D
7 C
8 B
9 D
10 A
11 C
12 D
13 B
14 A
15 D
16 A
17 C
18 A
19 D
20 D
21 C
22 A
23 A

 Rolling is the process of reducing the thickness Rolling Processes

or changing the cross section of a long work
piece by compressive forces applied through a
set of rolls.
 Friction between the rolls and the metal surface
produces high compressive stress.
 Hot‐working (unless mentioned cold rolling.)
 Metal will undergo bi‐axial compression.
 Hot Rolling
 Done above the recrystallization temp.
(Cross sectional area > 100 cm 2 and with a Thickness <6 mm and width
width ≥ 2 x thickness). < 600 mm

 Results in fine grained structure.

Thickness > 6 mm
 Amount of reduction is high
 Surface quality and final dimensions are less
(Cross sectional area >
40x40 mm2). accurate.
 Breakdown of ingots into blooms and billets is
done by hot‐rolling.
 This is followed by further hot‐rolling into plate,
(Cross sectional
area > 230 cm2).

sheet, rod, bar, pipe, rail, etc.

Rolling stand arrangement

Cold Rolling
Three High Four High
Done below the recrystallization temp.. Two High

Products are sheet, strip, foil, etc. with good surface

finish and closed dimensional tolerance can be
produced.
Increased mechanical properties like strength and
hardness due to strain hardening. Cluster(or) Sendzmier
Tandem
 Force and power required in rolling will be high.

Planetary mill
Planetary mill
 Consist of a pair of heavy backing rolls surrounded by a large
number of planetary rolls.
 Power is given to large diameter rolls and smaller diameter
rolls are connected to surface of the large diameter rolls
through individual axle.
 The overall reduction is the summation of a series of small
reductions by each pair of rolls. Therefore, the planetary mill
can reduce a slab directly to strip in one pass through the mill.
 The operation requires feed rolls to introduce the slab into
the mill
 Rolling processes
Roll cambering Ring rolling
 Purpose of ring rolling is to decrease the thickness of ring and increase the
diameter.
 As the rolls squeeze and rotate, the wall thickness is reduced and the
diameter of the ring increases.
 Ring rolls are made of alloy cast steel.

a) Cambered rolls to compensate for roll bending

b) Un cambered rolls give variation of thickness

Roll Bending Roll forming

A continuous form of three‐point bending is roll Roll forming is a type of rolling involving the
bending, where plates, sheets, and rolled shapes can continues bending of a long strip of sheet metal in
be bent to a desired curvature on forming rolls. Upper to a desired cross section.
roll being adjustable to control the degree of curvature.

Shape rolling Thread rolling

 This is a cold‐forming process in which the threads are formed by rolling a
In shape rolling, the work is deformed into a contoured cross thread blank between hardened dies that causes the metal to flow radially in
section. Products made by shape rolling include construction the desired shape.
shapes such as I-beams, L-beams, and U- channels; rails for  No metal is removed, greater strength, smoother, harder, and more
railroad tracks; and round and square bars and rods wear‐resistant surface than cut threads.
 Major diameter is always greater than the diameter of the blank.
 Blank diameter is little larger (0.002 inch) than the pitch diameter of the
thread.
 Restricted to ductile materials
 Roll piercing Roll piercing
 The billet or round stock is rolled between two rolls, both of
them rotating in the same direction with their axes at an angle
of 4.5 to 6.5 degree.
 These rolls have a central cylindrical portion with the sides
tapering slightly. There are two small side rolls, which help in
guiding the metal.
 Because of the angle at which the roll meets the metal, it gets
in addition to a rotary motion, an additional axial advance,
which brings the metal into the rolls.
 This cross‐rolling action makes the metal friable at the center
which is then easily pierced and given a cylindrical shape by
the central‐piercing mandrel.

Rolling defects Match List ‐ I (products) with List ‐ II

• Wavy edges : These are the result of roll bending. (processes) and select the correct answer
The strip is thinner along its edges than at its using the codes given below the lists:
centre. Because the edges elongate more than
the centre and they buckle because of restraining
from expanding freely in the rolling direction. List – I List ‐II
• spread: In the rolling operation with smaller a)M.S. angles and
width to thickness ratios the width increases
considerably in the roll gap. This increased width channels 1.Welding
is called spreading b)Carburetors 2.Forging
• Crocodile crack or Alligatoring due to weakness c)Roof trusses 3.Casting
at the center sheet bifurcate into two parts this is
called crocodile crack d)Gear wheels 4.Rolling

Rolling process Rolling

𝒉𝒏 = 𝒉𝒇 + 𝟐𝐑 𝟏 − 𝒄𝒐𝒔 𝜽𝒏
𝒉𝒏 = thickness at any point
𝑽𝟎 𝒉 𝟎 = 𝑽𝒏 𝒉 𝒏 = 𝑽𝒇 𝒉 𝒇
∆𝒉𝒎𝒂𝒙 = 𝝁𝟐 𝑹

∆𝒉
𝒕𝒂𝒏 𝜽 = 𝝁 = 𝑹
(𝜽= angle of bite)
𝑽𝒇 −𝑽𝒓
Forward slip= ( vf= velocity of work piece at exit)
𝑽𝒓
(v0= velocity of work piece at entry)
𝑽𝒓 −𝑽𝟎
backward slip= (vr= velocity of the roller)
𝑽𝒓
(At Neutral point vr = velocity of work
piece)
𝐑𝐨𝐥𝐥 𝐬𝐞𝐩𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐧𝐠 𝐟𝐨𝐫𝐜𝐞 (𝐅) = 𝛔𝟎 × 𝐀 = 𝛔𝟎 × (𝐥𝐩 × 𝐁) Chapter 15 Rolling
lp =Length of Arc of contact(or)projected length= 𝐑∆𝐡 Q. No. Answer

1 C
𝝈𝟎 = Flow stress of the material 2 -
3 D
A= projected area 4 D
5 A
B= width of work piece 6 A
7 B
𝐓=𝐅×𝐚 8 B
9 D
𝐚 = 𝟎. 𝟓𝐥𝐩 (𝐡𝐨𝐭 𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠) ( a= arm length) 10 A
11 C
𝐚 = 𝟎. 𝟒𝟓𝐥𝐩 (𝐜𝐨𝐥𝐝 𝐫𝐨𝐥𝐥𝐢𝐧𝐠) 12 C
13 7.28
T= Torque for each roll 14 9.12
𝟐𝛑𝐍𝐓 15 0.141
𝐏= 16 5.71
𝟔𝟎 17 14.7
P= power in rolling 18 1.25