RVS TECHNICAL CAMPUS – COIMBATORE

(An Autonomous Institution)

B.E/B.Tech - DEGREE EXAMINATION, OCTOBER 2024

Academic Year: 2024-2025 (Odd Semester)

Department of Mechatronics Engineering

CONTINUOUS INTERNAL ASSESMENT TEST – I ANSWER KEY

Part A (2 MARKS)

1. What do you mean by half cell potential?

Half-cell or half-reaction potential is the potential of the half-reaction (half cell) measured against a
standard hydrogen electrode in a given set of conditions. Standard conditions call for a 298K temperature, a 1 atm
pressure, and a 1M electrolyte concentration. With reference to typical hydrogen electrodes, it is measured.

2. What is a Bio amplifier?

A Bioamplifier is an electrophysiological device, a variation of the instrumentation amplifier, used to
gather and increase the signal integrity of physiologic electrical activity for output to various sources. It may be
an independent unit, or integrated into the electrodes.

3. Define electrode and transducer.

Electrodes are conductive materials that serve as interfaces for the transfer of electrical signals in
biological systems, particularly during electrocardiography (ECG) where they detect the electrical activity of
the heart.

A transducer is a device that converts any physical quantities into a proportional electrical signal
(voltage and current). In general words, the transducer is a device that converts one form of energy into another
which is measurable in the form of an electrical signal. That process of converting energy from one form to
another form is known as Transduction.

4. Draw the recording unit of EMG.

5. Draw the symbol of feedback differential amplifier.

6(a). Explain in detail about Inductive Transducer.(13)

There are two kinds of inductive transducers available such as simple inductance & two-coil mutual
inductance. The best example of an inductive transducer is LVDT. Please refer to this link to know
about inductive transducer circuit working and its advantages and disadvantages such as LVDT (linear
variable differential transformer).

InductiveTransducer
1). Simple Inductance
In this type of inductive transducer, a simple single coil is used as the transducer. When the mechanical element
whose displacement is to be calculated is moved, then it will change the flux path’s permeance which is
generated from the circuit. It modifies the inductance of the circuit as well as the equivalent output. The circuit
o/p can be directly adjusted against the input value. Therefore, directly it provides the parameter’s valve to be
calculated.
2). Two-Coil Mutual Inductance
In this type of transducer, there are two different coils are arranged. In the primary coil, the excitation can be
generated with external power source whereas in the next coil the output can be attained. Both the mechanical
inputs as well as output are proportional.
Inductive Transducer Working Principle
The working principle of an inductive transducer is the magnetic material’s induction. Just like the
electrical conductor’s resistance, it depends on various factors. The magnetic material’s induction can depend
on different variables like the twists of the coil over the material, the magnetic material’s size, & the flux’s
permeability.

inductive-transducer-working
The magnetic materials are used in the transducers in the path of flux. There is some air gap between
them. The change in the circuit inductance can be occurred due to the air gap change. In most of these
transducers, it is mainly used to work the instrument properly. The inductive transducer uses three working
principles which include the following.
 Self Inductance Change
 Mutual Inductance Change
 Eddy Current Production
 Self Inductance Change
We know that the coil’s self-inductance can be derived by
L = N2/R
Where ‘N’ is the number of twists of coil,‘R’ is the magnetic circuit’s reluctance,
The reluctance ‘R’ can be derived by the following equation
R = l/µA
Thus, inductance equation can become like the following
L = N2 µA/l
Where A = It is the Coil’s cross-sectional area,l = Coil’s length,µ = Permeability
We know that geometric form factor G = A/l, then the inductance equation will become like the following.
L = N2 µG
The self-inductance is changed by a change in the number of twists, geometric form factor ‘G’ and
permeability ‘µ’.For instance, if some displacement is capable to alter the above factors, then it can be
calculated directly in terms of inductance.
Mutual Inductance Change
Here transducers work on the principle of change in mutual inductance. It uses several coils for the
purpose of knowing. These coils include their self-inductance which are indicated by L1 & L2. The common
inductance among these two twists can be derived by the following equation.
M = √ L1. L2
Therefore common inductance is altered by unstable self-inductance otherwise through the unstable
coupling of coefficient ‘K’. Here, the coupling coefficient mainly depends on the direction & distance among
the two coils. As a result, the displacement can be measured by fixing one coil & make secondary coil movable.
This coil can move by the power source whose displacement is to be calculated. The change in mutual
inductance can be caused by the change in displacement coefficient coupling distance. This mutual inductance
change is adjusted by measurement and displacement.
Eddy Current Production
Whenever a conducting shield is located close to a coil carrying AC (alternating current), then the
current flow can be induced within the shield which is known as “EDDY CURRENT”. This kind of principle is
used in inductive transducers. When a conducting plate is arranged near to a coil carrying AC then eddy
currents will be generated within the plate. The plate which carries eddy current will generates their own
magnetic field which works against plate magnetic field. So the magnetic flux will be reduced.
As a coil is located near to coil carrying AC, a flowing current can be induced within it which in turn
generates its own flux to decrease the flux of the current-carrying coil & therefore coil’s inductance will be
changed. Here, the coil is arranged nearer to the plate then high eddy current will be generated as well as a high
drop within coil inductance. Thus, by changing the distance among the coil and plate, the inductance of the coil
will change. The principle like changing the distance of coil or plate with the help of measurand can be used
within measurements of displacement.
Inductive Transducer Applications
The applications of these transducers include the following.
The application of these transducers finds in proximity sensors to measure position, touchpads, dynamic
motion, etc.
Mostly these transducers are used for detecting the kind of metal, to find miss lost parts otherwise counts the
objects.
These transducers are also applicable for detecting the movement of the apparatus which include belt conveyor
and bucket elevator etc.
Inductive Transducer Advantages and Disadvantages
The advantages of inductive transducer include the following.
 The responsivity of this transducer is high
 Load effects will be reduced.
 Strong against ecological quantities
The disadvantages of inductive transducer include the following.
 The operating range will be reduced due to side effects.
 The working temperature should be under the Curie temperature.
 Sensitive to the magnetic field
Thus, this is all about Inductive transducers which work on the inductance change principle because of any
significant change within the amount to be calculated.
 For instance, an LVDT is one sort of inductive transducer, which is used to calculate the displacement of
voltage variation among its two secondary voltages, which are nothing but the induction result because of the
change in flux of the secondary coil by the iron bar displacement.

6(b). Explain Isolation amplifier and its types.(13)

An isolation amplifier can be defined as, an amplifier which doesn’t have any conductive contact among
input as well as output sections. Consequently, this amplifier gives ohmic isolation among the i/p & o/p
terminals of the amplifier.This isolation must have less leakage as well as a high amount of dielectric
breakdown voltage. The typical resistor and capacitor values of amplifier among the input & output terminals
are resistor should have 10 Tera Ohms and capacitor should have 10 picofarads.

isolation-amplifier
These amplifiers are frequently used when there is extremely huge common-mode voltage disparity
among input & output side. In this amplifier, the ohmic circuitry is not there from input ground to output
ground.
Isolation Amplifier Design Methods
There are three kinds of design methods are used in isolation amplifiers which include the following.
 Transformer Isolation
 Optical Isolation
 Capacitive Isolation
1). Transformer Isolation
This type of isolation uses two signals like PWM or frequency modulated. Internally, this amplifier
includes 20 KHz oscillator, rectifier, filter, and transformer to give supply to every isolated stage.
The rectifier is used as an input to the main op-amp.Transformer links the supply.The oscillator is used as an
input to the secondary op-amp.An LPF is used for removing the components of other frequency.
 The advantages of transformer isolation mainly include high CMRR, linearity, and accuracy.
 The applications of transformer isolation mainly include medical, nuclear and industrial.
2). Optical Isolation
In this isolation, the l signal can be changed from biological to light signal with LED for further process. In this,
the patient circuit is input circuit whereas the output circuit can be formed by a phototransistor. These circuits
are operated with a battery. The i/p circuit changes the signal into the light as well as the o/p circuit changes the
light back to the signal.The advantages of optical isolation mainly include;
 By using this we can obtain amplitude and original frequency.
 It connects optically without the need of modulator otherwise demodulator.
 It improves the safety of the patient.
 The applications of transformer isolation mainly include process control in industries, data acquisition,
measurements of biomedical, monitoring of the patient, interface element, test equipment, controlling
of SCR, etc.
3). Capacitive Isolation
 It uses frequency modulation and the input voltage’s digital encoding.
 The input voltage can be changed to relative charge over the switched capacitor.
 It includes circuits like modulator as well as a demodulator.
 The signals are sent across a differential capacitive barrier.
 For both sides, separate supplied are given.

The advantages of capacitive isolation mainly include;

  This isolation can be used to remove ripple noises
 These are used for analog systems
 It includes linearity and high-gain stability.
 It gives high immunity to magnetic noises
 By using this, noise can be avoided.
 The applications of capacitive isolation mainly include data acquisition, interface element, monitoring
of the patient, EEG, and ECG.
Features
 The main features of the isolation amplifier mainly include the following.
 Voltage Supply
 Current Supply
 Operating Temperature
The voltage supply of amplifiers mainly refers to the range of voltage source. The current supply is the
amount of current which is taken from the source of power supply as it is allied to an amplifier. The operating
temperature of an amplifier is the particular value of ambient temperature.
These amplifiers use different methods to reduce distortion & huge signal non-linearity like using a LOC
(linear opto coupler) to enhance the amplifier’s linearity over an exact range of the signal. This LOC includes
an input LED connected to 2- photodiodes. These photodiodes feed the input and output circuitry.
When designing this amplifier is the main task to reduce the signal drift and an isolation amplifier heats up
frequently throughout working, then the current supply with the circuit will decrease. These amplifiers are
normally evaluated by size, performance, and cost with the technical necessities being stability, linearity and
high-frequency response of the signal. The main concerns while designing this amplifier include breakdown
voltage and managing leakage.
When the input impedance of an op-amp is extremely high then the isolation can be caused. As this circuit
includes high input impedance, then minute current can be drawn from the amplifier circuit. According
to Ohms law, when the resistance is high, then the current will be drawn less from the power supply.

isolation-amplifier-circuit -diagram
Therefore, an op-amp does not draw a significant quantity of current from the power source. So in
practice, there is no current will be drawn as well as transferred from one portion to another portion of the
circuit. Therefore, this amplifier works as an isolation device.
When the input impedance of an op-amp is low then it draws a vast amount of current. Ohms law states
that, if load impedance has less resistance, then it draws huge current by the source of power so that high
disturbances can be caused, and this is quite opposite to isolation. Here, isolation amplifier works like a buffer
and they do not strengthen signals although provide to isolate divisions of circuits.
Isolation Amplifier Applications
These amplifiers are normally used in applications like signal conditioning. This may utilize different
bipolar, CMOS, & complementary bipolar amplifiers which include chopper, isolation, instrumentation
amplifiers.
As several devices work by using low power sources otherwise batteries. Selecting an isolation amplifier for
different applications mainly depends on the supply voltage characteristics of an amplifier.

7(a)(i). Write down about Bio nano-sensors.(7)

 Bionano sensors are an integral part of the rapidly evolving field of nanotechnology, offering innovative
solutions for healthcare applications.
These sensors combine the principles of nanotechnology and biosensing to detect and analyze biological
and chemical entities with high sensitivity and specificity. In this blog post, we will explore the principles,
design considerations, and diverse applications of bionano sensors in healthcare.
Principles of Bionano Sensors:
Bionano sensors operate on the principle of detecting and transducing biological signals into measurable
outputs. They utilize nanomaterials, such as nanoparticles, nanowires, and nanotubes, to enhance sensitivity and
selectivity. Various sensing mechanisms, including optical, electrochemical, and mechanical, are employed to
detect and quantify target analytes.
Design Considerations for Bionano Sensors:
The design of bionano sensors involves careful consideration of factors such as sensor geometry,
surface functionalization, and signal transduction mechanisms. Integration of nanomaterials with bioreceptors,
such as antibodies, enzymes, or DNA probes, enhances the sensor's performance. Miniaturization, compatibility
with biological samples, and ease of fabrication are also crucial design aspects.
Applications of Bionano Sensors in Healthcare:
a. Disease Diagnosis and Monitoring:
Bionano sensors enable rapid and accurate detection of disease biomarkers for early diagnosis and
monitoring. They offer non-invasive and real-time monitoring capabilities for conditions like diabetes,
cardiovascular diseases, cancer, and infectious diseases.
b. Point-of-Care Testing:
Bionano sensors facilitate point-of-care testing by providing quick and on-site analysis of various health
parameters. This allows for immediate diagnostic decisions and personalized treatment plans, particularly in
resource-limited settings.
c. Wearable and Implantable Sensors:
Bionano sensors integrated into wearable devices or implanted within the body offer continuous
monitoring of vital signs, biomarkers, or drug levels. These sensors provide valuable data for personalized
medicine, disease management, and drug delivery optimization.
d. Environmental Monitoring:
Bionano sensors find applications in monitoring environmental pollutants, toxins, and pathogens. Their
high sensitivity and selectivity enable real-time detection, contributing to early warning systems and ensuring a
safer environment.
Challenges in Bionano Sensor Development:
The development of bionano sensors faces several challenges that need to be addressed for wider
adoption and commercialization. These challenges include sensor stability, reproducibility, biocompatibility,
cost-effectiveness, and integration with existing healthcare systems. Ongoing research and collaboration among
scientists, engineers, and clinicians are crucial to overcoming these obstacles.
Future Prospects of Bionano Sensors:
The future of bionano sensors in healthcare looks promising. Advancements in nanomaterials,
fabrication techniques, and sensor design will lead to improved sensitivity, selectivity, and multiplexing
capabilities. Integration with artificial intelligence, data analytics, and Internet of Things (IoT) technologies will
further enhance their performance and enable smarter healthcare systems.
Bionano sensors offer a powerful platform for healthcare applications, providing sensitive, selective,
and real-time detection of biological and chemical entities. Their principles, design considerations, and
applications in disease diagnosis, monitoring, point-of-care testing, and environmental monitoring showcase
their transformative potential. Overcoming challenges in sensor development will pave the way for a future
where bionano sensors play a vital role in personalized medicine, improved patient outcomes, and a healthier
society.

7(a)(ii). Explain fiber optic transducer.(6)

Optical Sensors
 Optical sensors can be used for a simple detection of distance to providing artificial vision to a system
for object recognition. Vision refers the process of capturing an image in real time and converting it to a form
that can be analyzed.

Vision can be used for detecting the presence of an object, position, and movement, recognition of
patterns or features, or complex scene analysis. Optical sensors include (Photoresistors, Photodiodes, Infrared
sensors Encoder).
• Photoresistors, or light-dependent resistors, are light-sensitive variable resistors. The resistance
depends on the intensity of light. The resistance decreases with increasing light intensity and increases with
decreasing intensity.
• Photodiodes, are devices that consume light energy to produce an electric current. Photodiodes are also
referred to as photodetectors or photo-sensors. Common applications of photodiodes for robotics include the
detection of the presence of light, color, position, or intensity

FOSs can be realized with a working principle based on a large number of interferometric
configurations, e.g., Sagnac interferometer, Michelson interferometer, Mach-Zehnder interferometer, and
Fabry-Perot interferometer (Yoshino et al., 1982a) (Davis et al., 1982). Typically, these approaches show an
extremely high sensitivity although cross-sensitivity represents a significant drawback: first of all the influence
of temperature may introduce quite high measurement uncertainties (Grattan & Sun, 2000).
This FOSs can be designed as intrinsic sensors, where the sensing element is the fiber itself, or as
extrinsic sensors, where a small size sensing element is attached at the tip of an optical fiber. The most common
configuration is the second, where the sensing element, placed at the tip of the optical fiber, causes changes of
light parameters in a well-known relation with the measurand.
In this case, the optical fiber is employed to transmit the radiation emitted by a light source (e.g., laser
or diode) and to transport the radiation, modulated by the measurand, from the sensing element to a
photodetector (e.g., an optical spectrum analyzer). Thanks to this solution, the sensor can be used also for
invasive measurements, as the largest part of the measurement system (light source and photodetector) can be
placed far from the miniaturized sensing element, due to the very limited energy losses of light in the fiber.

7(b)(i)Explain differential amplifier with feedback.(7)

Differential amplifier is a type of electronic amplifier that amplifies the difference between two
input voltages but suppresses any voltage common to the two inputs.[1] It is an analog circuit with two
inputs Vin− and Vin+ and one output Vout, in which the output is ideally proportional to the difference
between the two voltages:

Vout=A(Vin+−Vin−),
where A is the gain of the amplifier.
Single amplifiers are usually implemented by either adding the appropriate feedback resistors to a standard op-
amp, or with a dedicated integrated circuit containing internal feedback resistors. It is also a common sub-
component of larger integrated circuits handling analog signals.

Theory of amplifier in numerical method

Vout=Ad(Vin+−Vin−),
where Vin+ and Vin− are the input voltages, and Ad is the differential gain.In practice, however, the gain is not
quite equal for the two inputs. This means, for instance, that if Vin+ and Vin− are equal, the output will not be
zero, as it would be in the ideal case. A more realistic expression for the output of a differential amplifier thus
includes a second term:

Vout=Ad(Vin+−Vin−)+AcVin++Vin−2,
where Ac is called the common-mode gain of the amplifier.

As differential amplifiers are often used to null out noise or bias voltages that appear at both inputs, a
low common-mode gain is usually desired. The common-mode rejection ratio (CMRR), usually defined as the
ratio between differential-mode gain and common-mode gain, indicates the ability of the amplifier to accurately
cancel voltages that are common to both inputs. The common-mode rejection ratio is defined as

CMRR=10log10⁡(AdAc)2=20log10⁡Ad|Ac|.

In a perfectly symmetric differential amplifier, Ac is zero, and the CMRR is infinite. Note that a
differential amplifier is a more general form of amplifier than one with a single input; by grounding one input
of a differential amplifier, a single-ended amplifier results.

Biasing
In contrast with classic amplifying stages that are biased from the side of the base (and so they are
highly β-dependent), the differential pair is directly biased from the side of the emitters by sinking/injecting the
total quiescent current. The series negative feedback (the emitter degeneration) makes the transistors act as
voltage stabilizers; it forces them to adjust their VBE voltages (base currents) to pass the quiescent current
through their collector-emitter junctions.[nb 4] So, due to the negative feedback, the quiescent current depends
only slightly on the transistor's β.

The biasing base currents needed to evoke the quiescent collector currents usually come from the
ground, pass through the input sources and enter the bases. So, the sources have to be galvanic (DC) to ensure
paths for the biasing current and low resistive enough to not create significant voltage drops across them.
Otherwise, additional DC elements should be connected between the bases and the ground (or the positive
power supply).

Common mode
In common mode (the two input voltages change in the same directions), the two voltage (emitter)
followers cooperate with each other working together on the common high-resistive emitter load (the "long
tail"). They all together increase or decrease the voltage of the common emitter point (figuratively speaking,
they together "pull up" or "pull down" it so that it moves).

In addition, the dynamic load "helps" them by changing its instant ohmic resistance in the same
direction as the input voltages (it increases when the voltage increases and vice versa.) thus keeping up constant
total resistance between the two supply rails.
 There is a full (100%) negative feedback; the two input base voltages and the emitter voltage change
simultaneously while the collector currents and the total current do not change. As a result, the output collector
voltages do not change as well.

Differential mode
Normal. In differential mode (the two input voltages change in opposite directions), the two voltage
(emitter) followers oppose each other—while one of them tries to increase the voltage of the common emitter
point, the other tries to decrease it (figuratively speaking, one of them "pulls up" the common point while the
other "pulls down" it so that it stays immovable) and vice versa.

So, the common point does not change its voltage; it behaves like a virtual ground with a magnitude
determined by the common-mode input voltages. The high-resistance emitter element does not play any role—
it is shunted by the other low-resistance emitter follower. There is no negative feedback, since the emitter
voltage does not change at all when the input base voltages change. The common quiescent current vigorously
steers between the two transistors and the output collector voltages vigorously change. The two transistors
mutually ground their emitters; so, although they are common-collector stages, they actually act as common-
emitter stages with maximum gain. Bias stability and independence from variations in device parameters can be
improved by negative feedback introduced via cathode/emitter resistors with relatively small resistances.

7(b)(ii).Explain in detail about cell structure.(6)

The cell is the basic structural and functional unit of all forms of life. Every cell consists
of cytoplasm enclosed within a membrane; many cells contain organelles, each with a specific function.The
term comes from the Latin word cellula meaning 'small room'. Most cells are only visible under a microscope.
Cells emerged on Earth about 4 billion years ago. All cells are capable of replication, protein synthesis,
and motility.

Cells are broadly categorized into two types: eukaryotic cells, which possess a nucleus, and prokaryotic
cells, which lack a nucleus but have a nucleoid region. Prokaryotes are single-celled organisms such as bacteria,
whereas eukaryotes can be either single-celled, such as amoebae, or multicellular, such as
some algae, plants, animals, and fungi. Eukaryotic cells contain organelles including mitochondria, which
provide energy for cell functions; chloroplasts, which create sugars by photosynthesis, in plants; and ribosomes,
which synthesise proteins.

Cells were discovered by Robert Hooke in 1665, who named them after their resemblance
to cells inhabited by Christian monks in a monastery. Cell theory, developed in 1839 by Matthias Jakob
Schleiden and Theodor Schwann, states that all organisms are composed of one or more cells, that cells are the
fundamental unit of structure and function in all living organisms, and that all cells come from pre-existing
cells.

Some of the other differences are:

 The plasma membrane resembles that of prokaryotes in function, with minor differences in the setup. Cell
walls may or may not be present.
 The eukaryotic DNA is organized in one or more linear molecules, called chromosomes, which are
associated with histone proteins. All chromosomal DNA is stored in the cell nucleus, separated from the
cytoplasm by a membrane.[2] Some eukaryotic organelles such as mitochondria also contain some DNA.
 Many eukaryotic cells are ciliated with primary cilia. Primary cilia play important roles in
chemosensation, mechanosensation, and thermosensation. Each cilium may thus be "viewed as a sensory
cellular antennae that coordinates a large number of cellular signaling pathways, sometimes coupling the
signaling to ciliary motility or alternatively to cell division and differentiation.
 Motile eukaryotes can move using motile cilia or flagella. Motile cells are absent in conifers and flowering
plants.[citation needed] Eukaryotic flagella are more complex than those of prokaryotes.
8(a).With neat diagram explain ECG.(14)

Electrocardiogram refers to the recording of electrical changes that occurs in heart during a cardiac
cycle. It may be abbreviated as ECG or EKG.
Electrocardiograph:
It is an instrument that picks up the electric currents produced by the heart muscle during a cardiac cycle of
contraction and relaxation.
Working principle of electrocardiograph:
It works on the principle that a contracting muscle generates a small electric current that can be detected
and measured through electrodes suitably placed on the body.
For a resting electrocardiogram, a person is made to lie in the resting position and electrodes are placed on
arms, legs and at six places on the chest over the area of the heart. The electrodes are attached to the person’s
skin with the help of a special jelly.
The electrode picks up the current and transmits them to an amplifier inside the electrocardiograph.
Then electrocardiograph amplifies the current and records them on a paper as a wavy line.
In an electrocardiograph, a sensitive lever traces the changes in current on a moving sheet of paper.
A modern electrocardiograph may also be connected to an oscilloscope, an instrument that display the current
on a screen.
Normal ECG wave:
A normal ECG makes a specific pattern of three recognizable waves in a cardiac cycle. These wave are-
P wave, QRS wave and T-wave, P-R interval, S-T segment.

P-wave:
 It is a small upward wave that appears first
 It indicates atrial depolarization (systole), during which excitation spreads from SA node to all over
atrium
 About 0.1 second after P-wave begins, atria contracts. Hence P-wave represents atrial systole
QRS wave:
 It is the second wave that begins as a little downward wave but continues as a large upright triangular
wave and ends as downward wave
 It represents the ventricular depolarization (systole)
 Just after QRS wave begins, ventricles starts to contracts. Hence QRS wave represents ventricular
systole
T- wave:
 It is third small wave in the form of a dome-shaped upward deflection.
 It indicates ventricular repolarization (diastole)
 It also represents the beginning of ventricular diastole

P-R interval:
  It represents the time required for an impulse to travel through the atria, AV node and bundle of his to
reach ventricles.
S-T segment:
 It is measured from the end of S to the beginning of T- wave
 It represents the time when ventricular fibres are fully depolarized.
Application of ECG:
 it indicates the rate and rhythm or pattern of contraction of heart
 it gives a clue about the condition of heart muscle and is used to diagnose heart disorders
 it helps the doctors to determine whether the heart is normal, enlarged or if its certain regions are
damaged
 it can also reveal irregularities in heart’s rhythm known as ‘arrhythmia’
 it is used by doctors to diagnose heart damage in conditions like high blood pressure, rheumatic fever
and birth defects an ECG also helps to determine the location and amount of injury caused by heart
attack and later helps to assess the extent of recovery
Significance of different waves in an ECG deviating from normal ECG
Enlarged P-wave:
 It indicates enlarged atrium (it occurs in a condition called mitral stenosis in which due to narrowing of
mitral valve, blood backs up into left atrium)
Enlarged Q-wave: downward wave
 It indicates a myocardial infraction ( heart attack)
Enlarged R- wave:
 It indicates enlarged ventricles
Long P-Q interval:
 It indicates more time taken by impulse to travel through atria and reach ventricles
 It happens in coronary artery disease and rheumatic fever when a scar tissue may form in heart
Elevated S-T segment:
 When S-T segment is above the base line, it may indicates acute myocardial infraction
Depressed S-T segment:
 It indicates that heart muscles receive insufficient oxygen
Flatter T-wave:
 It indicates insufficient supply of oxygen to heart muscle as it occurs in coronary artery disease
Elevated T-wave:
 It may indicates increased level of potassium ions in blood as in hyperkalemia.

8(b). Explain in detail about Operational Amplifiers.(14)

Block diagram of an op-amp

 Transconductance amplifier, whose input is some voltage and output is the current.
 Transimpedance amplifier, whose input is some current and output is the voltage.
An operational amplifier (or, op-amp) is a voltage amplification, three-terminal electronic device, having two
input terminals namely Inverting terminal (marked by ‘-‘ sign in diagrams) and a Non-inverting
terminal(marked by ‘+’ sign in diagrams), and the third terminal is the output terminal. Gain (“A”) of the op-
amp = output signal/input signal
Different configurations of op-amp:
Open Loop Configuration –
In this configuration, the op-amp does not have any feedback. Ideally, it has an infinite open-loop
gain(practically hundreds of thousands of times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals).
InvertingMode: Non-invertingMode:

Closed Loop Configuration –

In this configuration of the op-amp, negative feedback is used i.e., a portion of the output voltage is applied back to
the inverting input. This feedback greatly reduces the gain of the op-amp as compared to open-loop gain.

Characteristic of an ideal op-amp –

 Open Loop gain: Ideally op-amp should have an infinite open-loop gain (practically it is hundreds of
thousands of times larger than the potential difference between its input terminals).
 Input impedance or resistance: Ideally op-amp should have infinite input resistance (practically it should
be very high).
 Output impedance or resistance: Ideally op-amp should have zero output resistance (practically it should
be very low).
 Bandwidth: Ideally op-amp should have infinite bandwidth (practically it is limited).
 CMRR: Ideally op-amp should have infinite CMRR, Common Mode Rejection Ratio so that common
noise voltage in the output becomes zero.
 Slew Rate: Ideally op-amp should have infinite SR, slew rate so that any change in the input voltage
simultaneously changes the output voltage.
Basic terminologies of an op-amp –
1. Slew Rate:
The Slew rate (SR) of an op-amp is defined as the maximum rate of change of output voltage per unit of
time. It is represented as volts per microsecond ( V/μs).
SR = (dVo / dt) |max
2. Output Offset Voltage:
Output of the op-amp should be ideally zero when the voltage difference between the inputs is zero but,
practically the output is non-zero, there is a voltage of very small magnitude. This unwanted voltage at the
output side when no input is given is called Output Offset Voltage.

3. Input Offset Current: Magnitude of the difference of current entering inverting and non-inverting
terminals, when no input voltage is given to op-amp.
Io = |Ib1-Ib2|;
Io-Input Offset Current, Ib1 & ,Ib2-current at input terminals
4. Input Bias Current:
I(bias) = (Ib1+Ib2)/2
5. Input Offset Voltage:
It is the voltage applied deliberately either at inverting or non-inverting terminal of an op-amp to nullify
the effect of Output Offset Voltage.
V(Input Offset Voltage) = 0 (ideally)
V(Input Offset Voltage) = -V(Output Offset Voltage) (practically)
6. Common Mode Rejection Ratio (CMRR):
It is the ratio between the differential mode gain (when the different signals are applied to both inputs
terminals) to the common-mode gain(when the signal is applied to just one of the input terminals).
CMRR = |(differential mode gain) / (common mode gain)|
7. Supply Voltage Rejection Ratio (SVRR):
It is defined as the ratio of change in input offset voltage, Vio of an op-amp to change in the supply
voltage, V.
SVRR = ΔVio / ΔV
Application:
It can be used as:
 Inverting and Non-inverting adder,
 Subtractor,
 Integrator,
 Differentiator,
 Logarithmic amplifier etc.