CHAPTER THREE

METHODOOGIES

3.1. Soil Sampling

Soil sampling is a fundamental process in geotechnical engineering, environmental science,

agriculture, and various other fields. It involves the collection of soil samples from specific

locations to analyze and assess soil properties, quality, and composition. The information

gathered from soil samples is critical for a wide range of applications, including construction,

site assessment, land use planning, environmental impact assessment, and soil characterization.

3.2 Clay Soil: Soil samples will be collected between 0.5m and 1m depth from South Core of

Joseph Sarwuan Tarkaa University Makurdi using disturbed soil sample collection method with

the aid of digger and shovel. The measuring tape was used in measuring the depths while

polythene bag was used in packaging the soil sample collected at each depth in order to maintain

its natural moisture content before using in the laboratory. Soil samples will be collected in clean

nylons and labelled, to prevent loss of moisture.

3.3 WASTE MARBLE DUST

The samples of waste marble dust will be obtained from Deidei building materials market in

Abuja where cutting and polishing of marble is being carried out which will be packed in sacks

and transported to the Soil Mechanic Laboratory of the Department of Civil Engineering, Joseph

Sarwuan Tarkaa University Makurdi Benue State for testing. The Waste Marble Dust (WMD)

will be sieved through the British Standard Sieve No 200 before being used. The WMD

proportions will varied by 0, 4, 8, 12 and 16% by mass of the dry soil sample.
3.4. Moisture Content Test

The British Standard that provides guidelines for conducting the moisture content test on soils

Clause 3.2 of BS 1377-2:1990, "Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes - Part

2: Classification Tests".

3.4.1. Apparatus:

1. Drying Oven: An oven capable of maintaining a constant temperature, typically around

105°C, is used to dry the sample.

2. Weighing Balance: A precision weighing balance is used to measure the mass of the

sample.

3. Sample Container: A container, such as a moisture tin or dish, is used to hold the sample

during testing.

3.4.2. Test Procedures

I. The empty container will be cleaned, weighed and dried and then will recorded as W1.

The balance will be checked before using it to measure the weight.

II. 50g of moist soil will be added into the container, reweighed it and recorded it as W2.

III. The container will be kept in the oven for 24 hours and the temperature will maintained

between 105°C to 115°C.

IV. The final weight of the container will be reweighed and recorded with the dried soil

sample as W3.
Then, to calculate the soil moisture content the equation below will be used.

w 2−w 3
Moisture Content= Equation 1
w 3−w 1

The moisture content is expressed as a percentage and indicates the proportion of the sample's

weight that is due to water.

3.5. Specific Gravity Test

The British Standard that provides guidelines for conducting the specific gravity test on soils is

Clause 8.2 of BS 1377-2:1990, "Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes - Part

2: Classification Tests".

3.5.1. Apparatus:

1. Volumetric Container: This is a specialized container with a known volume used for

measuring the volume of soil solids and water. The pycnometer is often made of glass

and should be thoroughly cleaned and dried before use.

2. Weighing Balance: A precision weighing balance is used to measure the mass of the

pycnometer, soil, and water.

3.5.2. Test Procedures

I. A cleaned and dried volumetric container will be weighed and recorded as W1.

II. Air-dried soil will be put into the container, then weighed and recorded as W2.

III. Water will be carefully added to the container with air-dried soil until it will be filled,

then its weighed and recorded as W3.

IV. The volumetric container was cleaned and dried, then filled with water and then

reweighed and was recorded as W4.

V. The equation below was used to calculate the specific gravity of the soil.

W 2−W 1
SpecificGravity= Equation 2
( W 2−W 1 )−( W 3−W 4 )

3.6. Particle Size Distribution

The British Standard that provides guidelines for conducting sieve analysis on soils is BS 1377-

2:1990, "Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes - Part 2: Classification Tests."

Clause 9.2

3.6.1. Apparatus:

1. Sieve Set: A set of stacked sieves with various mesh sizes. These sieves are typically

made of brass or stainless steel and have a diameter of 200 mm. The sizes of the sieves

may vary, sizes include: 2 mm, 1mm, 850 µm, 710 µm, 500 µm, 425 µm, 300 µm, 212

µm, 150 µm, 90 µm, 75 µm, and Retaining Pan.

2. Mechanical Sieve Shaker: A machine that agitates the sieves to ensure efficient

separation of soil particles based on their size.

3. Balance: A precision weighing balance is used to measure the mass of the sample.

4. Sample Container: A container, such as a moisture tin or dish, is used to hold the sample

during testing.

3.6.2. Test Procedures

 I. Oven-dried soil sample will be gotten and pulverised as finely as possible, using a mortar

and pestle.

II. A soil sample of 500g will be weighed recorded and as W0.

III. The sieves will be stacked so that those with larger openings (lower numbers) are placed

above those with smaller openings (higher numbers).

IV. A pan was placed under the last sieve (number 200) to collect the portion of soil passing

through it. The sieve number 4 and 200 was included in the stack.

V. The sieves will be cleaned and dried, brush was used to remove particles stuck in the

openings.

VI. The pan of all the sieves will be weighed and recorded separately.

VII. The soil will be poured from above into the stack of sieves and the cover of the sieve will

be placed on the top sieve.

I. The stack will be placed on the sieve shaker, the clamps will be affixed, a timer to will be

between 10 to 15 minutes, and the shaker will be started.

II. The sieve shaker will be stopped and the mass of each sieve and retained soil will be

weighed.

The grain-size distribution of the soil sample can be obtained by plotting the percent finer with

the corresponding sieve opening size on semi-log graph paper. the values of D 10, D30, and D60,

which are the diameters that correspond to the percent finer of 10%, 30%, and 60%, respectively

can be determined from the grain-size distribution curve. The values of the uniformity coefficient

Cu and the coefficient of gradation Cc can be calculated using the below equations:
 2
D30
C C= Equation 3
D60 x D10

and

D60
C u= Equation 4
D10

The values of Cu and Cc are used to classify whether the soil is well-graded or not. Sand is

considered well-graded, if Cu is greater than 6 and C c is between 1 and 3. For gravel to be

considered as well-graded, Cu should be greater than 4 and Cc should be between 1 and 3.

The particle size distribution curve is a valuable tool for soil classification, as it provides insights

into the soil's texture, helping to categorize it as gravel, sand, silt, clay, or a combination of these.

3.7. Hydrometer Analysis

The British Standard that provides guidelines for conducting hydrometer analysis on soils is BS

1377-2:1990, "Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes - Part 2: Classification

Tests." Clause 6.4.

The test is carried out to quantitatively determine particle distribution for soil particles smaller

than 75micron.

3.7.1. Apparatus:

Hydrometer: The hydrometer is a specialized glass tube calibrated with a scale and a weighted

bulb at the bottom. It measures the density or specific gravity of the soil-water suspension.

1. Graduated Cylinder: A graduated cylinder is used to hold and measure the volume of the

soil-water suspension.
 2. Stirring Rod: A stirring rod is used to ensure thorough mixing of the soil and water in the

suspension.

3. Mechanical Shaker (optional): A mechanical shaker can be used to provide uniform

mixing of the soil and water in the suspension.

3.7.2. Test Procedures

I. 50g of fine soil will be placed in a beaker, 125mL of the dispersing agent will be added

and stirred until the soil is thoroughly wet. the soil will be allowed to soak for at least ten

minutes.

II. While the soil will be soaking, 125mL of the dispersing agent will be added to the control

cylinder and filled to the mark with distilled water. (The reading at the top of the

meniscus formed by the hydrometer stem and the control solution is called the zero

connection.) Record a reading less than zero as a negative (-) correction and a reading

between zero and sixty as a positive (+) correction. The meniscus correction is the

difference between the top of the meniscus and the level of the solution in the control jar

(usually about +1). the control cylinder was shaken to mix the contents thoroughly. The

hydrometer and thermometer were inserted into the control cylinder and the zero

correction and temperature, were noted respectively.

III. The soil slurry will be transferred to a mixer, more distilled water was added, then mixed

for two minutes.

IV. Immediately the soil slurry was transferred into the empty sedimentation cylinder and

distilled water was added up to the mark.

 V. The open end of the cylinder was covered with a stopper and secured with the palm of

my hand. The cylinder was turned upside down and back upright alternatively for one

minute, inverting it approximately 30 times.

VI. The cylinder will be set down and the time was recorded. the stopper was removed from

the cylinder, carefully the hydrometer was inserted for the first reading.

VII. The reading will be taken by observing the top of the meniscus that was formed by the

suspension and the hydrometer stem. The hydrometer was removed slowly and placed

back into the control cylinder. Very gently the control cylinder was spinned to remove

any particles that may have adhered to it.

VIII. The hydrometer readings will be taken at 15sec, 30sec, 1min, 2min, 4min, 8min, 15min,

30min, 1hr, 2hrs, 4hrs, 8hrs, 16hrs, 24hrs. These are approximate times that will usually

give a satisfactory plot spread.

IX. The temperature was recorded for the soil-water suspension to the nearest 0.5°C for each

hydrometer reading.

By obtaining the effective hydrometer depth (L in cm) for the corrected meniscus reading and

value of K from table using specific gravity of the soil. Then calculate the equivalent particle

diameter by using the below formula take t in minutes and D in mm.

D=k ×
√ L
t
Equation 5

Also determine the temperature correction (C T), correction factor (a) from table using specific

gravity. Then calculate the corrected hydrometer reading as follows:

Rc =R actual−Zero Correction+C T Equation 6

Calculate the percent finer using below equation. WS is the weight of the soil sample in grams.

P=
( )
Rc∗a
Ws
∗100 Equation 7

Adjust the percent finer using the below equation. Where, F200 = percent finer of sieve number

200.

P∗F 200
PA= Equation 8
100

Then plot the grain size curve using particle diameter (D) versus the adjusted percent finer on the

semi logarithmic sheet.

Hydrometer analysis is particularly important for understanding the behavior of fine-grained

soils, such as determining their liquid limit, plastic limit, and plasticity index, which are key

parameters for soil classification and engineering design.

3.8. Atterberg Limits Test

The Atterberg limits test is a fundamental laboratory test used to determine the plasticity and

moisture sensitivity of soils. This is done in accordance to BS 1377-:1990. The test comprises

three main components:

3.8.1 Liquid Limit (LL) Test.

3.8.1.1. Apparatus:
 I. Cone Penetrometer: A standard cone-shaped penetrometer, typically made of

brass, is used to determine the soil's liquid limit. The cone has a specific mass and

dimensions.

II. Casagrande Apparatus: This apparatus consists of a brass cup, a base, and a

mechanism for raising and lowering the cup.

III. Grooving Tools: Grooving tools, such as spatulas or a grooving machine, are used

to create grooves in the soil specimen.

IV. Balance: A precision weighing balance is used to measure the mass of the soil and

cup.

3.8.1.2. Test Procedures

I. 40 gm of given soil passing through sieve number 40 in evaporating disc will be taken.

II. Water will be added to form paste. the soil was left for a sufficient time so that water

may permeate throughout the soil mass.

III. A portion of the paste will be taken with the spatula and put into the cup of a liquid limit

device, spatula will be used to smooth the surface so that the maximum depth is about

8mm.

IV. Vertical groove was cut with the standard grooving tool at the centre line of the soil cup.

V. Blows will be given by rotating the crank of the standard device at the rate of 2 rotations

per seconds and the number of blows for 12mm closer of the groove at the bottom was

noted.
 VI. A representative slice of soil will be collected with the help of a spatula for water content

determination.

VII. The process will be repeated by changing the consistency for the different numbers of

blows varying from 15 to 40 and the moisture content of corresponding samples collected

was found.

VIII. The graph of moisture content against number of blows on semi-log paper having number

of blows on X-axis with log scale and water content on Y-axis with arithmetical scale

was plotted.

The liquid limit as the water content for 25 number of blows was gotten from the graphs.

3.6.2. Plastic Limit (PL) Test

3.8.2.1. Apparatus:

I. Plastic Limit Dish: A flat, shallow, circular dish is used to contain the soil sample

during testing. The dish often has a specified diameter.

II. Balance: A precision weighing balance is used to measure the mass of the soil

sample.

III. Glass Plate or Smooth Surface: A flat glass plate or smooth surface is used for

rolling the soil into threads.

IV. Spatula or Grooving Tool: A spatula or grooving tool is used to assist in

manipulating and preparing the soil sample.

3.8.2.2. Test Procedures

 I. About 20g of soil sample will be collected and prepared to several small ellipsoidal-

shaped masses of soil and placed on a glass plate.

II. The soil mass will be rolled on the glass plate with the palm of the hand with just

sufficient pressure to roll the mass into a thread of uniform diameter throughout the

length.

III. Rolling was continued until the thread starts to crumble.

IV. This was repeated until the thread just crumbles at about 3mm diameter.

V. The crumbled soil thread was collected in the crucible and was used for water content

determination.

VI. The process will be repeated for two or three determinations to get the average value of

plastic limit.

The water content obtained was the plastic limit of the soil.

3.8.3. Plasticity Index (PI): PI was calculated as the difference between Liquid limit and Plastic

limit. PI = LL-PL.
Figure 3.0: Atterberg limits description, volume change and generalized stress-strain

response of expansive soils

(After Holtz and Kovacs, 1981).

3.8.4. Shrinkage Limit Test

The shrinkage limit test determines the moisture content at which soil ceases to shrink upon

drying. Expansive soils typically exhibit a higher shrinkage limit, indicating a greater potential

for volumetric changes with moisture fluctuations. This test is conducted in the laboratory done

in accordance to BS 1377-:1990 clause 6.3/6.4.

3.8.4.1. Apparatus:

1. Shrinkage Dish: A flat, shallow, circular dish is used to contain the soil sample during

testing. The dish often has a specified diameter.

2. Balance: A precision weighing balance is used to measure the mass of the soil sample.
3.9. Linear Shrinkage Test

The Linear Shrinkage Test, often referred to as the "Linear Shrinkage Limit Test," is conducted

to determine the linear shrinkage of a soil sample when it dries. It is a common test in

geotechnical engineering to assess the potential for soil shrinkage, which is particularly relevant

when dealing with expansive soils. The British Standard that provides guidelines for conducting

this test is BS 1377-2:1990, "Methods of Test for Soils for Civil Engineering Purposes - Part 2:

Classification Tests." Clause 6.5.

3.9.1. Apparatus:

I. Shrinkage Dish: A flat, circular dish with a known cross-sectional area, typically

made of metal or glass, and of a specified depth (as per the standard).

II. Sample Preparation Tools: Equipment for preparing a representative soil sample,

such as a spatula, porcelain or metal dish, balance, and oven for drying the

sample.

3.9.2. Test Procedure:

1. The sample will be dried in an oven to a constant weight, as determined by weighing the

sample at regular intervals until no further weight loss was observed.

2. A specific mass of the dried soil was weighed and it mass was recorded.

3. The dried soil sample was placed in the shrinkage dish and mixed with a small amount of

water to achieve a plastic consistency state.

4. The soil was formed into a uniform, rectangular specimen within the shrinkage dish, ensuring

that it is free from voids and is well-compacted.

5. The shrinkage dish was placed with the soil specimen into an oven and dried at a specified

temperature (usually 110°C) until a constant weight was reached. The constant weight indicates

that the soil has lost all its moisture.

6. After drying, the distance between the two points on the specimen with the linear shrinkage

caliper was measured and this distance was recorded.

7. The linear shrinkage (LS) was calculated using the following formula:

LS (mm) = Initial length of the specimen - Length of the specimen after drying

8. Calculation of Linear Shrinkage: Calculate the linear shrinkage (LS) as follows:

LS (%) = ((W2 - W3) / W3) x 100

 W2 is the mass of the soil-filled dish before drying.

 W3 is the mass of the soil-filled dish after drying.

3.10. Compaction test:

Modified Proctor Compaction Test:

One of the commonly used compaction tests is the Modified Proctor Compaction Test, which is

covered under BS 1377-4 clause 3.3 -3.6. This test assesses the maximum dry density and

optimum moisture content of a soil or aggregate under controlled conditions.

3.10.1. Apparatus for Modified Proctor Compaction Test (BS 1377-4):

1. Mould: Cylindrical metal mould with a base plate, having a standard diameter and height

(100 mm diameter and 127.3 mm height).

 2. Rammer: A mechanical rammer with a specified weight (2.5 kg) and a specified height of

drop (304.8 mm).

3. Balance: A balance capable of weighing the soil to an accuracy of at least 0.1% of the

mass of the soil.

4. Spatula: Used for spreading and leveling the soil in the mould.

5. Sample Extractor: A device for extracting representative samples during the compaction

process to determine moisture content.

6. Moisture Cans: Airtight containers for preserving the moisture content of extracted

samples.

7. Oven: Used for drying soil samples to determine initial moisture content.

8. Mixing Tools: Tools for thoroughly mixing the soil sample to achieve uniform moisture

distribution.

3.10.2. Test Procedures.

Sample Preparation:

i. Soil sample will be air-dried and broken down to aggregates to ensure uniformity.

ii. The initial moisture content was determined by drying a sample in the oven.

Compaction Mould Setup:

i. The compaction mould will be assembled on the base plate, it will be ensured to be clean

and coated with a release agent.

1. Compaction Test:
 i. A layer of soil will be placed in the mould and compacted using the rammer with a

specified number of blows (e.g., 25 blows).

ii. Additional layers will be added and compacted until the mould was filled.

iii. The height of the compacted soil after each layer was measured and recorded.

2. Moisture Content Determination:

i. Samples will be extracted at various stages of compaction to determine the moisture

content.

ii. These samples will be placed in the oven and the moisture content was calculated.

3. Compaction Curve:

i. A compaction curve with dry density on the y-axis and moisture content on the x-axis

was plotted.

4. Maximum Dry Density and Optimum Moisture Content:

i. the point on the compaction curve where the dry density is maximum was identified. The

corresponding moisture content is the optimum moisture content.

3.11 Compressive strength Test

This is one of the essential properties of the clay to determine it strength. Cube of size

150*150*150mm is casted with different percentage of admixture. After curing for the number

of days; 7, 14 and 28days, these cubes are crushed in a compressive strength machine, to get a
desired compressive strength for different days of drying and different admixture percentage.

Done in accordance to BS EN 12390-3 Method for determination of compressive strength of

cubes.