DATA COMMUNICATIONS AND NETWORKS

UNIT 1

1. OSI Model

o OSI stands for Open System Interconnection is a reference model that describes
how information from a software application in one computer moves through a
physical medium to the software application in another computer.
o OSI consists of seven layers, and each layer performs a particular network function.
o OSI model was developed by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO)
in 1984, and it is now considered as an architectural model for the inter-computer
communications.

Characteristics of OSI Model:

7 Layers of OSI Model: There are the seven OSI layers. Each layer has
different functions. A list of seven layers are given below:
1. Physical Layer
2. Data-Link Layer
3. Network Layer
4. Transport Layer
5. Session Layer
6. Presentation Layer
7. Application Layer
 1) Physical layer:
o The main functionality of the physical layer is to transmit the individual
bits from one node to another node.
o It is the lowest layer of the OSI model.
o It establishes, maintains and deactivates the physical connection.
o It specifies the mechanical, electrical and procedural network interface
specifications.

Functions of a Physical layer:

o Line Configuration: It defines the way how two or more devices can be
connected physically.
o Data Transmission: It defines the transmission mode whether it is
simplex, half-duplex or full-duplex mode between the two devices on the
network.
o Topology: It defines the way how network devices are arranged.
o Signals: It determines the type of the signal used for transmitting the
information.

2) Data-Link Layer

o This layer is responsible for the error-free transfer of data frames.

o It defines the format of the data on the network.
o It provides a reliable and efficient communication between two or
more devices.
o It is mainly responsible for the unique identification of each device
that resides on a local network.
o It contains two sub-layers

Logical Link Control Layer

Media Access Control Layer

Functions of the Data-link layer:

1.Flow Control
2.Error Control
3. Framing
 4.Access Control
5.Physical Address

3) Network Layer:

o It is a layer 3 that manages device addressing, tracks the location of

devices on the network.
o It determines the best path to move data from source to the
destination based on the network conditions, the priority of service,
and other factors.
o The Data link layer is responsible for routing and forwarding the
packets.
o Routers are the layer 3 devices, they are specified in this layer and
used to provide the routing services within an internetwork.
o The protocols used to route the network traffic are known as
Network layer protocols. Examples of protocols are IP and Ipv6.

Functions of Network Layer:

o Internetworking
o Addressing
o Routing
o Packetizing

4)Transport Layer:

o The Transport layer is a Layer 4 ensures that messages are

transmitted in the order in which they are sent and there is no
duplication of data.
o The main responsibility of the transport layer is to transfer the data
completely.
o It receives the data from the upper layer and converts them into
smaller units known as segments.
o This layer can be termed as an end-to-end layer as it provides a
point-to-point connection between source and destination to deliver
the data reliably.

o The two protocols used in this layer are:

 1. Transmission Control Protocol

2. User Datagram Protocol

Functions of Transport Layer:

a. Service-point addressing
b. Segmentation and reassembly
c. Connection control
d. Flow control
e. Error control

5) Session Layer:
o It is a layer 3 in the OSI model.
o The Session layer is used to establish, maintain and synchronizes the
interaction between communicating devices.

Functions of Session layer:

o Dialog control
o Synchronization

6) Presentation Layer:

o A Presentation layer is mainly concerned with the syntax and semantics of

the information exchanged between the two systems.
o It acts as a data translator for a network.
o This layer is a part of the operating system that converts the data from
one presentation format to another format.
o The Presentation layer is also known as the syntax layer.

Functions of Presentation layer:

o Translation:
o Encryption
o Compression

7) Application Layer:

o An application layer serves as a window for users and application processes to access
network service.
o It handles issues such as network transparency, resource allocation, etc.
 o An application layer is not an application, but it performs the application layer
functions.
o This layer provides the network services to the end-users.

Function :

o File transfer, access, and management (FTAM):

o Mail services:
o Directory services:

What is Network Topology?

Topology defines the structure of the network of how all the components are interconnected
to each other. There are two types of topology: physical and logical topology.

Types of Network Topology

Physical topology is the geometric representation of all the nodes in a network. There are six
types of network topology which are Bus Topology, Ring Topology, Tree Topology, Star
Topology, Mesh Topology, and Hybrid Topology.

1) Bus Topology:
o The bus topology is designed in such a way that all the stations are connected through
a single cable known as a backbone cable.
o Each node is either connected to the backbone cable by drop cable or directly
connected to the backbone cable.
o When a node wants to send a message over the network, it puts a message over the
network. All the stations available in the network will receive the message whether it
has been addressed or not.
o The bus topology is mainly used in 802.3 (ethernet) and 802.4 standard networks.
o The configuration of a bus topology is quite simpler as compared to other topologies.
o The backbone cable is considered as a "single lane" through which the message is
broadcast to all the stations.

Advantages of Bus topology:

o Low-cost cable
o Moderate data speeds
o Familiar technology
o Limited failure
Disadvantages of Bus topology:

o Extensive cabling.
o Difficult troubleshooting
o Signal interference
o Reconfiguration difficult
o Attenuation

2) Ring Topology
o Ring topology is like a bus topology, but with connected ends.
o The node that receives the message from the previous computer will retransmit to the
next node.
o The data flows in one direction, i.e., it is unidirectional.
o The data flows in a single loop continuously known as an endless loop.
o It has no terminated ends, i.e., each node is connected to other node and having no
termination point.
o The data in a ring topology flow in a clockwise direction.
o The most common access method of the ring topology is token passing.

Advantages of Ring topology:

o Network Management
o Product availability
o Cost
o Reliable.

Disadvantages of Ring topology:

o Difficult troubleshooting
o Failure
o Reconfiguration difficult
o Delay

3) Star Topology
o Star topology is an arrangement of the network in which every node is connected to
the central hub, switch or a central computer.
 o The central computer is known as a server, and the peripheral devices attached to the
server are known as clients.
o Coaxial cable or RJ-45 cables are used to connect the computers.
o Hubs or Switches are mainly used as connection devices in a physical star topology.
o Star topology is the most popular topology in network implementation.

Advantages of Star topology

o Efficient troubleshooting:
o Network control:
o Limited failure:
o Familiar technology:
o Easily expandable:
o Cost effective:
o High data speeds: .

Disadvantages of Star topology

o A Central point of failure:
o Cable

4) Tree topology
o Tree topology combines the characteristics of bus topology and star topology.
o A tree topology is a type of structure in which all the computers are connected with
each other in hierarchical fashion.
o The top-most node in tree topology is known as a root node, and all other nodes are
the descendants of the root node.
o There is only one path exists between two nodes for the data transmission. Thus, it
forms a parent-child hierarchy.

Advantages of Tree topology

o Support for broadband transmission:
o Easily expandable:
o Easily manageable
o Error detection:
o Limited failure:
o Point-to-point wiring:
Disadvantages of Tree topology

o Difficult troubleshooting
o High cost:
o Failure.
o Reconfiguration difficult

5) Mesh topology:
o Mesh technology is an arrangement of the network in which computers are
interconnected with each other through various redundant connections.
o There are multiple paths from one computer to another computer.
o It does not contain the switch, hub or any central computer which acts as a central
point of communication.
o The Internet is an example of the mesh topology.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for WAN implementations where communication
failures are a critical concern.
o Mesh topology is mainly used for wireless networks.
o Mesh topology can be formed by using the formula:
Number of cables = (n*(n-1))/2;

Advantages of Mesh topology:

1. Reliable: .

2. Fast Communication:

3. Easier Reconfiguration:

Disadvantages of Mesh topology

1. Cost
2. Management
3. Efficiency:

6) Hybrid Topology
o The combination of various different topologies is known as Hybrid topology.
o A Hybrid topology is a connection between different links and nodes to transfer the
data.
 o When two or more different topologies are combined together is termed as Hybrid
topology and if similar topologies are connected with each other will not result in
Hybrid topology. For example, if there exist a ring topology in one branch of ICICI
bank and bus topology in another branch of ICICI bank, connecting these two
topologies will result in Hybrid topology.

Advantages of Hybrid Topology

o Reliable
o Scalable
o Flexible:
o Effective

Disadvantages of Hybrid topology

o Complex design: .
o Costly Hub:
o Costly infrastructure:

Computer Network Types

A computer network is a group of computers linked to each other that enables the computer
to communicate with another computer and share their resources, data, and applications.

A computer network can be categorized by their size. A computer network is mainly of four
types:

o LAN(Local Area Network)

o PAN(Personal Area Network)
o MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)
o WAN(Wide Area Network)

LAN(Local Area Network)

o Local Area Network is a group of computers connected to each other in a small area
such as building, office.
o LAN is used for connecting two or more personal computers through a
communication medium such as twisted pair, coaxial cable, etc.
o It is less costly as it is built with inexpensive hardware such as hubs, network
adapters, and ethernet cables.
o The data is transferred at an extremely faster rate in Local Area Network.
 o Local Area Network provides higher security.

PAN(Personal Area Network)

o Personal Area Network is a network arranged within an individual person, typically
within a range of 10 meters.
o Personal Area Network is used for connecting the computer devices of personal use is
known as Personal Area Network.
o Thomas Zimmerman was the first research scientist to bring the idea of the Personal
Area Network.
o Personal Area Network covers an area of 30 feet.
o Personal computer devices that are used to develop the personal area network are the
laptop, mobile phones, media player and play stations.

There are two types of Personal Area Network:

o Wired Personal Area Network

o Wireless Personal Area Network

MAN(Metropolitan Area Network)

o A metropolitan area network is a network that covers a larger geographic area by
interconnecting a different LAN to form a larger network.
o Government agencies use MAN to connect to the citizens and private industries.
o In MAN, various LANs are connected to each other through a telephone exchange
line.
o The most widely used protocols in MAN are RS-232, Frame Relay, ATM, ISDN, OC-
3, ADSL, etc.
o It has a higher range than Local Area Network(LAN).

Uses Of Metropolitan Area Network:

o MAN is used in communication between the banks in a city.
o It can be used in an Airline Reservation.
o It can be used in a college within a city.
o It can also be used for communication in the military.

WAN(Wide Area Network)

o A Wide Area Network is a network that extends over a large geographical area such as
states or countries.
 o A Wide Area Network is quite bigger network than the LAN.
o A Wide Area Network is not limited to a single location, but it spans over a large
geographical area through a telephone line, fibre optic cable or satellite links.
o The internet is one of the biggest WAN in the world.
o A Wide Area Network is widely used in the field of Business, government, and
education.

Advantages Of Wide Area Network:

Following are the advantages of the Wide Area Network:

o Geographical area:
o Centralized data.
o Get updated files
o Exchange messages:
o Sharing of software and resources:
o Global business:
o High bandwidth

Disadvantages of Wide Area Network:

o Security issue:
o Needs Firewall & antivirus software:
o High Setup cost:
o Troubleshooting problems:

WLAN Full Form

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WLAN stands for Wireless Local Area Network. WLAN is a local area network that uses
radio communication to provide mobility to the network users while maintaining the
connectivity to the wired network. A WLAN basically, extends a wired local area network.
WLAN’s are built by attaching a device called the access point(AP) to the edge of the wired
network. Clients communicate with the AP using a wireless network adapter which is similar
in function to an ethernet adapter. It is also called a LAWN is a Local area wireless network.
The performance of WLAN is high compared to other wireless networks. The coverage of
WLAN is within a campus or building or that tech park. It is used in the mobile propagation
of wired networks. The standards of WLAN are HiperLAN, Wi-Fi, and IEEE 802.11. It
offers service to the desktop laptop, mobile application, and all the devices that work on the
Internet. WLAN is an affordable method and can be set up in 24 hours. WLAN gives users
the mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the
network. Most latest brands are based on IEE 802.11 standards, which are the WI-FI brand
name.
WLAN Architecture
Components in Wireless LAN architecture as per IEEE standards are as follows:
1. Stations: Stations consist of all the equipment that is used to connect all
wireless LANs. Each station has a wireless network controller.
2. Base Service Set(BSS): It is a group of stations communicating at the physical
layer.
3. Extended Service Set(ESS): It is a group of connected Base Service Set(BSS).
4. Distribution Service (DS): It connects all Extended Service Set(ESS).

Types of WLANs
As per IEEE standard WLAN is categorized into two basic modes, which are as follows:
1. Infrastructure: In Infrastructure mode, all the endpoints are connected to a base
station and communicate through that; and this can also enable internet access. A
WLAN infrastructure can be set up with: a wireless router (base station) and an
endpoint (computer, mobile phone, etc). An office or home WiFi connection is
an example of Infrastructure mode.
2. Ad Hoc: In Ad Hoc mode WLAN connects devices without a base station, like a
computer workstation. An Ad Hoc WLAN is easy to set up it provides peer-to-
peer communication. It requires two or more endpoints with built-in radio
transmission.
Working of WLAN
WLAN transmits data over radio signals and the data is sent in the form of a packet. Each
packet consists of layers, labels, and instructions with unique MAC addresses assigned to
endpoints. This enables routing data packets to correct locations.
Advantages of WLAN
1. Installation speed and simplicity.
2. Installation flexibility.
3. Reduced cost of ownership.
4. Reliability.
5. Mobility.
6. Robustness.
Disadvantages of WLAN
1. Slower bandwidth.
2. Security for wireless LANs is the prime concern.
3. Less capacity.
 4. Wireless networks cost four times more than wired network cards.
5. Wireless devices emit low levels of RF which can be harmful to our health.

What is Bluetooth?
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Bluetooth is used for short-range wireless voice and data communication. It is a Wireless
Personal Area Network (WPAN) technology and is used for data communications over
smaller distances. This generation changed into being invented via Ericson in 1994. It
operates within the unlicensed, business, scientific, and clinical (ISM) bands from 2.4 GHz to
2.485 GHz. Bluetooth stages up to 10 meters. Depending upon the version, it presents
information up to at least 1 Mbps or 3 Mbps. The spreading method that it uses is FHSS
(Frequency-hopping unfold spectrum). A Bluetooth network is called a piconet and a group
of interconnected piconets is called a scatternet.
What is Bluetooth?
Bluetooth simply follows the principle of transmitting and receiving data using radio waves.
It can be paired with the other device which has also Bluetooth but it should be within the
estimated communication range to connect. When two devices start to share data, they form a
network called piconet which can further accommodate more than five devices.
Key Features of Bluetooth
 The transmission capacity of Bluetooth is 720 kbps.
 Bluetooth is a wireless device.
 Bluetooth is a Low-cost and short-distance radio communications standard.
 Bluetooth is robust and flexible.
 The basic architecture unit of Bluetooth is a piconet.
Architecture of Bluetooth
The architecture of Bluetooth defines two types of networks:
Piconet: Piconet is a type of Bluetooth network that contains one primary node called the
master node and seven active secondary nodes called slave nodes. Thus, we can say that there
is a total of 8 active nodes which are present at a distance of 10 meters. The communication
between the primary and secondary nodes can be one-to-one or one-to-many. Possible
communication is only between the master and slave; Slave-slave communication is not
possible. It also has 255 parked nodes, these are secondary nodes and cannot take
participation in communication unless it gets converted to the active state.
 Bluetooth Architecture

Scatternet: It is formed by using various piconets. A slave that is present in one piconet can
act as master or we can say primary in another piconet. This kind of node can receive a
message from a master in one piconet and deliver the message to its slave in the other piconet
where it is acting as a master. This type of node is referred to as a bridge node. A station
cannot be mastered in two piconets.
Bluetooth Protocol Stack
1. Radio (RF) layer: It specifies the details of the air interface, including frequency,
the use of frequency hopping and transmit power. It performs
modulation/demodulation of the data into RF signals. It defines the physical
characteristics of Bluetooth transceivers. It defines two types of physical links:
connection-less and connection-oriented.
2. Baseband Link layer: The baseband is the digital engine of a Bluetooth system
and is equivalent to the MAC sublayer in LANs. It performs the connection
establishment within a piconet, addressing, packet format, timing and power
control.
3. Link Manager protocol layer: It performs the management of the already
established links which includes authentication and encryption processes. It is
responsible for creating the links, monitoring their health, and terminating them
gracefully upon command or failure.
4. Logical Link Control and Adaption (L2CAP) Protocol layer: It is also known
as the heart of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It allows the communication between
upper and lower layers of the Bluetooth protocol stack. It packages the data
packets received from upper layers into the form expected by lower layers. It also
performs segmentation and multiplexing.
5. Service Discovery Protocol (SDP) layer: It is short for Service Discovery
Protocol. It allows discovering the services available on another Bluetooth-
enabled device.
6. RF comm layer: It is a cabal replacement protocol. It is short for Radio Frontend
Component. It provides a serial interface with WAP and OBEX. It also provides
emulation of serial ports over the logical link control and adaption
protocol(L2CAP). The protocol is based on the ETSI standard TS 07.10.
7. OBEX: It is short for Object Exchange. It is a communication protocol to
exchange objects between 2 devices.
8. WAP: It is short for Wireless Access Protocol. It is used for internet access.
9. TCS: It is short for Telephony Control Protocol. It provides telephony
service. The basic function of this layer is call control (setup & release) and group
management for the gateway serving multiple devices.
10. Application layer: It enables the user to interact with the application.
 Bluetooth Protocol Stack

Types of Bluetooth
Various types of Bluetooth are available in the market nowadays. Let us look at them.
 In-Car Headset: One can make calls from the car speaker system without the use
of mobile phones.
 Stereo Headset: To listen to music in car or in music players at home.
 Webcam: One can link the camera with the help of Bluetooth with their laptop or
phone.
 Bluetooth-equipped Printer: The printer can be used when connected via
Bluetooth with mobile phone or laptop.
 Bluetooth Global Positioning System (GPS): To use Global Positioning System
(GPS) in cars, one can connect their phone with car system via Bluetooth to fetch
the directions of the address.
Advantages of Bluetooth
 It is a low-cost and easy-to-use device.
 It can also penetrate through walls.
 It creates an Ad-hoc connection immediately without any wires.
 It is used for voice and data transfer.
Disadvantages of Bluetooth
 It can be hacked and hence, less secure.
 It has a slow data transfer rate of 3 Mbps.
 Bluetooth communication does not support routing.
Applications of Bluetooth
 It can be used in wireless headsets, wireless PANs, and LANs.
 It can connect a digital camera wireless to a mobile phone.
 It can transfer data in terms of videos, songs, photographs, or files from one cell
phone to another cell phone or computer.
 It is used in the sectors of Medical healthcare, sports and fitness, Military.
What is Bridge in Computer Network – Types, Uses, Functions & Differences
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The bridge is a networking device in a computer network that is used to connect multiple
LANs to a larger LAN. In computer networks, we have multiple networking devices such as
bridges, hubs, routers, switches, etc, each device has its own specification and is used for a
particular purpose. The bridge is a networking device that connects the larger LAN networks
with the group of smaller LAN networks.
In this article, we are going to discuss everything about the bridge including what exactly a
bridge is, and the type of bridges we have in computer networks including transparent
bridges, source routing bridges, and translational bridges, which will be followed by
advantages and disadvantages of the bridge in networking. then how the bridge is different
from the gateway and last we will look into the applications and functions of the bridge in the
network.
Bridge in Computer Network
A bridge in a computer network is a device used to connect multiple LANs together with a
larger Local Area Network (LAN). The mechanism of network aggregation is known as
bridging. The bridge is a physical or hardware device but operates at the OSI model’s data
link layer and is also known as a layer of two switches.
The primary responsibility of a switch is to examine the incoming traffic and determine
whether to filter or forward it. Basically, a bridge in computer networks is used to divide
network connections into sections, now each section has a separate bandwidth and a separate
collision domain. Here bridge is used to improve network performance.

Types of Bridges
There are three types of bridges in computer networks, which are as follows:
 Transparent Bridge: Transparent bridges are invisible to other devices on the
network. This bridge doesn’t reconfigure the network on the addition or deletion
of any station. The prime function of the transparent bridge is to block or forward
the data according to the MAC address.
 Source Routing Bridge: Source routing bridges were developed and designed by
IBM specifically for token ring networks. The frame’s entire route is embedded
with the data frames by the source station to perform the routing operation so that
once the frame is forwarded it must follow a specific defined path/route.
 Translational Bridge: Translational bridges convert the received data from one
networking system to another. Or it is used to communicate or transmit data
between two different types of networking systems. Like if we are sending data
from a token ring to an Ethernet cable, the translational cable will be used to
connect both the networking system and transmit data.
Working of Bridges
Let’s see the step-by-step working of the bridge in computer networks:
 Receiving Data: The bridge gets data packets (or frames) from both network
segments A and B.
 Building a Table: It creates a table of MAC addresses by looking at where the
data is coming from to know which device is on which segment.
  Filtering Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device also on network
A, the bridge stops it from going further.
 Forwarding Data: If the data from network A is meant for a device on network
B, the bridge sends it to the correct place on network B.
 Repeating for Both Sides: The bridge does the same thing for data coming from
network B.

Working of Bridge

Models of Bridge in Computer Networks

There are two main models of bridging in computer network: Local bridging and remote
bridging. Let us learn about them in detail.
 Local Bridging Local bridging connects LAN switches using local cables. This
allows computers on the same Ethernet segment, whether they’re connected to
virtual hubs or physical LANs, to communicate freely. It’s used when LANs
within the same area need to talk to each other directly at the link layer.
 Remote Bridging Remote bridging connects two bridges over a Wide Area
Network (WAN). This model is used when LANs are located in different
geographical areas and need to communicate with each other at the link layer.
Uses of Bridge in Computer Network
 Bridges are used to increase the network capacity as they can integrate multiple
LANs together.
 On receiving a data frame, databases use the bridge to decide whether to accept or
reject the data.
 In the OSI model, it can be used to transmit the data to multiple nodes of the
network.
 Used to broadcast the data even if the MAC address or destination address is
unavailable.
 It forwards data packets despite faulty nodes.
 The data packet can be forwarded or discarded by the bridge when the MAC
address is available.
Functions of Bridges in the Network
 The bridge is used to divide LANs into multiple segments.
 To control the traffic in the network.
 It can interconnect two LANs with a similar protocols.
 It can filter the data based on destination/MAC address.
Advantages
 Bridges can be used as a network extension like they can connect two network
topologies together.
  It has a separate collision domain, which results in increased bandwidth.
 It can create a buffer when different MAC protocols are there for different
segments.
 Highly reliable and maintainable. The network can be divided into
multiple LAN segments.
 Simple installation, no requirement of any extra hardware or software except the
bridge itself.
 Protocol transparency is higher as compared to other protocols.
Disadvantages
 Expensive as compared to hubs and repeaters.
 Slow in speed.
 Poor performance as additional processing is required to view the MAC address of
the device on the network.
 As the traffic received is in bulk or is broadcasted traffic, individual filtering of
data is not possible.
 During the broadcasting of data, the network has high broadcast traffic and
broadcast storms can be formed.

What is Ethernet?
Ethernet is the most widely used LAN technology and is defined under IEEE standards
802.3. The reason behind its wide usability is that Ethernet is easy to understand,
implement, and maintain, and allows low-cost network implementation. Also, Ethernet
offers flexibility in terms of the topologies that are allowed. Ethernet generally uses a bus
topology. Ethernet operates in two layers of the OSI model, the physical layer and the data
link layer. For Ethernet, the protocol data unit is a frame since we mainly deal with DLLs.
In order to handle collisions, the Access control mechanism used in Ethernet is CSMA/CD.

There are different types of Ethernet networks that are used to connect devices and transfer
data.
Let’s discuss them in simple terms:
1. Fast Ethernet: This type of Ethernet network uses cables called twisted pair or CAT5. It
can transfer data at a speed of around 100 Mbps (megabits per second). Fast Ethernet uses
both fiber optic and twisted pair cables to enable communication. There are three categories
of Fast Ethernet: 100BASE-TX, 100BASE-FX, and 100BASE-T4.
2. Gigabit Ethernet: This is an upgrade from Fast Ethernet and is more common
nowadays. It can transfer data at a speed of 1000 Mbps or 1 Gbps (gigabit per second).
Gigabit Ethernet also uses fiber optic and twisted pair cables for communication. It often
uses advanced cables like CAT5e, which can transfer data at a speed of 10 Gbps.
3.10-Gigabit Ethernet: This is an advanced and high-speed network that can transmit data
at a speed of 10 gigabits per second. It uses special cables like CAT6a or CAT7 twisted-
pair cables and fiber optic cables. With the help of fiber optic cables, this network can
cover longer distances, up to around 10,000 meters.
4. Switch Ethernet: This type of network involves using switches or hubs to improve
network performance. Each workstation in this network has its own dedicated connection,
which improves the speed and efficiency of data transfer. Switch Ethernet supports a wide
range of speeds, from 10 Mbps to 10 Gbps, depending on the version of Ethernet being
used.
Key Features of Ethernet
1. Speed: Ethernet is capable of transmitting data at high speeds, with current
Ethernet standards supporting speeds of up to 100 Gbps.
2. Flexibility: Ethernet is a flexible technology that can be used with a wide range
of devices and operating systems. It can also be easily scaled to accommodate a
growing number of users and devices.
3. Reliability: Ethernet is a reliable technology that uses error-correction
techniques to ensure that data is transmitted accurately and efficiently.
4. Cost-effectiveness: Ethernet is a cost-effective technology that is widely
available and easy to implement. It is also relatively low-maintenance, requiring
minimal ongoing support.
5. Interoperability: Ethernet is an interoperable technology that allows devices
from different manufacturers to communicate with each other seamlessly.
6. Security: Ethernet includes built-in security features, including encryption and
authentication, to protect data from unauthorized access.
7. Manageability: Ethernet networks are easily managed, with various tools
available to help network administrators monitor and control network traffic.
8. Compatibility: Ethernet is compatible with a wide range of other networking
technologies, making it easy to integrate with other systems and devices.
9. Availability: Ethernet is a widely available technology that can be used in
almost any setting, from homes and small offices to large data centers and
enterprise-level networks.
10. Simplicity: Ethernet is a simple technology that is easy to understand and use. It
does not require specialized knowledge or expertise to set up and configure,
making it accessible to a wide range of users.
Advantages of Ethernet
1. Speed:
2. Efficiency:
3. Good data transfer quality:

Disadvantages of Ethernet:
1. Distance limitations:
2. Bandwidth sharing: .
3. Security vulnerabilities
4. Complexity:
5. Compatibility issues:
6. Cable installation:
7. Physical limitations
What is a Token Ring?

A token ring is a computer network topology and access method to connect devices in a
physical ring or loop. In a token ring network, data can travel in a unidirectional or
bidirectional manner around the ring, and devices are connected to the network in a
sequential fashion. This topology contrasts other network topologies, such as Ethernet, which
use a bus or star configuration.
What is a Token Ring Network?

A Token Ring network is a type of local area network (LAN) technology that uses a ring
topology to connect devices. In a Token Ring network, devices are connected in a physical or
logical ring, and data travels around the ring in a unidirectional or bidirectional manner. The
term "token" refers to a particular control packet to manage network access.

What is Token Ring Star Topology?

A Token Ring star topology is a type of traditional Token Ring network topology in which
the physical layout of the network combines the star configuration, even though the logical
structure of the network remains a ring. This design combines elements of both star and ring
topologies to provide certain advantages. The token ring star topology works in the following
manner.

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1. Physical Star Layout: In a Token Ring star topology, all the devices are connected to
a central hub or Multistation Access Unit (MAU). This central hub is also known as
the focal point of the star. Each device, such as computers or network printers, has a
dedicated connection to the hub, and these connections radiate out from the hub like
the spokes of a wheel.
2. Logical Ring Structure: The layout of the logical ring topology; the entire network
maintains a logical ring structure created internally within the central hub. This means
that data packets and the token will continue circling within a ring within the hub, just
as they would in a traditional Token Ring network with a physical ring topology.
3. Token Passing: The controller of the token passing still controls access to the
network. When a device is connected to the hub then, the hub needs to transmit data.
It waits for the token to arrive at the hub. Once it has the token, it can transmit data
onto the logical ring within the hub. The token continues to circulate until another
device needs to transmit.

What are Type 1 and Type 3 Token Ring Networks?

In Token Ring networks, Type 1 and Type 3 are two different standards or categories of
Token Ring networks. These standards are part of the IEEE 802.5 series for Token Ring
LANs. Each type specifies other physical characteristics and requirements for Token Ring
networks:

Type 1 Token Ring (IEEE 802.5):

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o Speed: The Type 1 Token Ring operates at a data rate of 4 Mbps (megabits per
second).
 o Cabling: Type 1 Token Ring networks use shielded twisted-pair cables. It is also
referred to as STP (Shielded Twisted Pair) cabling. These cables are designed to
reduce electromagnetic interference, and these also enhance the reliability of the
network.
o Topology: Type 1 Token Ring networks typically use a physical ring topology, where
devices are connected sequentially in a closed-loop configuration. The token-passing
protocol maintains the logical ring structure.
o Connectors: Type 1 Token Ring networks often use IBM Data Connectors (IDCs) as
the standard connectors for connecting devices to the network.

Type 3 Token Ring (IEEE 802.5):

o Speed: Type 3 Token Ring networks operate at a data rate of 16 Mbps (megabits per
second). This represents a significant speed increase compared to Type 1.
o Cabling: Type 3 Token Ring networks also use shielded twisted-pair cables (STP)
similar to Type 1. However, these cables may have different specifications to
accommodate the higher data rate.
o Topology: Type 3 Token Ring networks can maintain the physical ring topology, but
they can also be implemented with a physical star topology where devices are
connected to a central hub (Multistation Access Unit or MAU). Despite the physical
star layout, the logical ring structure is maintained internally within the hub.
o Connectors: Type 3 Token Ring networks may use the same IBM Data Connectors
(IDCs) as Type 1 networks or other connectors compatible with the higher data rate.

Switching techniques

In large networks, there can be multiple paths from sender to receiver. The switching
technique will decide the best route for data transmission.

Switching technique is used to connect the systems for making one-to-one communication.

Circuit Switching
o Circuit switching is a switching technique that establishes a dedicated path between
sender and receiver.
o In the Circuit Switching Technique, once the connection is established then the
dedicated path will remain to exist until the connection is terminated.
 o Circuit switching in a network operates in a similar way as the telephone works.
o A complete end-to-end path must exist before the communication takes place.
o In case of circuit switching technique, when any user wants to send the data, voice,
video, a request signal is sent to the receiver then the receiver sends back the
acknowledgment to ensure the availability of the dedicated path. After receiving the
acknowledgment, dedicated path transfers the data.
o Circuit switching is used in public telephone network. It is used for voice
transmission.
o Fixed data can be transferred at a time in circuit switching technology.

Communication through circuit switching has 3 phases:

o Circuit establishment
o Data transfer
o Circuit Disconnect

Advantages Of Circuit Switching:

o In the case of Circuit Switching technique, the communication channel is dedicated.
o It has fixed bandwidth.

Disadvantages Of Circuit Switching:

o Once the dedicated path is established, the only delay occurs in the speed of data
transmission.
o It takes a long time to establish a connection approx 10 seconds during which no data
can be transmitted.
o It is more expensive than other switching techniques as a dedicated path is required
for each connection.
o It is inefficient to use because once the path is established and no data is transferred,
then the capacity of the path is wasted.
o In this case, the connection is dedicated therefore no other data can be transferred
even if the channel is free.
Message Switching
o Message Switching is a switching technique in which a message is transferred as a
complete unit and routed through intermediate nodes at which it is stored and
forwarded.
o In Message Switching technique, there is no establishment of a dedicated path
between the sender and receiver.
o The destination address is appended to the message. Message Switching provides a
dynamic routing as the message is routed through the intermediate nodes based on the
information available in the message.
o Message switches are programmed in such a way so that they can provide the most
efficient routes.
o Each and every node stores the entire message and then forward it to the next node.
This type of network is known as store and forward network.
o Message switching treats each message as an independent entity.

Advantages Of Message Switching

o Data channels are shared among the communicating devices that improve the
efficiency of using available bandwidth.
o Traffic congestion can be reduced because the message is temporarily stored in the
nodes.
o Message priority can be used to manage the network.
o The size of the message which is sent over the network can be varied. Therefore, it
supports the data of unlimited size.

Disadvantages Of Message Switching

o The message switches must be equipped with sufficient storage to enable them to
store the messages until the message is forwarded.
o The Long delay can occur due to the storing and forwarding facility provided by the
message switching technique.

Packet Switching
o The packet switching is a switching technique in which the message is sent in one go,
but it is divided into smaller pieces, and they are sent individually.
o The message splits into smaller pieces known as packets and packets are given a
unique number to identify their order at the receiving end.
 o Every packet contains some information in its headers such as source address,
destination address and sequence number.
o Packets will travel across the network, taking the shortest path as possible.
o All the packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o If any packet is missing or corrupted, then the message will be sent to resend the
message.
o If the correct order of the packets is reached, then the acknowledgment message will
be sent.

Approaches Of Packet Switching:

There are two approaches to Packet Switching:

Datagram Packet switching:

o It is a packet switching technology in which packet is known as a datagram, is
considered as an independent entity. Each packet contains the information about the
destination and switch uses this information to forward the packet to the correct
destination.
o The packets are reassembled at the receiving end in correct order.
o In Datagram Packet Switching technique, the path is not fixed.
o Intermediate nodes take the routing decisions to forward the packets.
o Datagram Packet Switching is also known as connectionless switching.

Virtual Circuit Switching

o Virtual Circuit Switching is also known as connection-oriented switching.
o In the case of Virtual circuit switching, a preplanned route is established before the
messages are sent.
o Call request and call accept packets are used to establish the connection between
sender and receiver.
o In this case, the path is fixed for the duration of a logical connection.

Advantages Of Packet Switching:

o Cost-effective:
o Reliable:
o Efficient.
Disadvantages Of Packet Switching:

o Packet Switching technique cannot be implemented in those applications that require

low delay and high-quality services.
o The protocols used in a packet switching technique are very complex and requires
high implementation cost.
o If the network is overloaded or corrupted, then it requires retransmission of lost
packets. It can also lead to the loss of critical information if errors are nor recovered.

Link State Routing

Link state routing is the second family of routing protocols. While distance-vector routers
use a distributed algorithm to compute their routing tables, link-state routing uses link-state
routers to exchange messages that allow each router to learn the entire network topology.
Based on this learned topology, each router is then able to compute its routing table by
using the shortest path computation.
Link state routing is a technique in which each router shares the knowledge of its
neighborhood with every other router i.e. the internet work. The three keys to understand
the link state routing algorithm.
1. Knowledge about the neighborhood: Instead of sending its routing table, a
router sends the information about its neighborhood only. A router broadcast its
identities and cost of the directly attached links to other routers.
2. Flooding: Each router sends the information to every other router on the
internetwork except its neighbors. This process is known as flooding. Every
router that receives the packet sends the copies to all the neighbors. Finally each
and every router receives a copy of the same information.
3. Information Sharing: A router send the information to every other router only
when the change occurs in the information.
Link state routing has two phase:
1. Reliable Flooding: Initial state– Each node knows the cost of its neighbors.
Final state- Each node knows the entire graph.
2. Route Calculation: Each node uses Dijkstra’ s algorithm on the graph to
calculate the optimal routes to all nodes. The link state routing algorithm is also
known as Dijkstra’s algorithm which is used to find the shortest path from one
node to every other node in the network.
Features of Link State Routing Protocols
 Link State Packet: A small packet that contains routing information.
 Link-State Database: A collection of information gathered from the link-state
packet.
 Shortest Path First Algorithm (Dijkstra algorithm): A calculation performed
on the database results in the shortest path
 Routing Table: A list of known paths and interfaces.
Characteristics of Link State Protocol
 It requires a large amount of memory.
 Shortest path computations require many CPU circles.
 If a network uses little bandwidth; it quickly reacts to topology changes
 All items in the database must be sent to neighbors to form link-state packets.
 All neighbors must be trusted in the topology.
Distance-vector routing (DVR)

In distance-vector routing (DVR), each router is required to inform the topology changes to
its neighboring routers periodically. Historically it is known as the old ARPNET routing
algorithm or Bellman-Ford algorithm.

How the DVR Protocol Works

 In DVR, each router maintains a routing table. It contains only one entry for each
router. It contains two parts − a preferred outgoing line to use for that destination and
an estimate of time (delay). Tables are updated by exchanging the information with
the neighbor’s nodes.
 Each router knows the delay in reaching its neighbors (Ex − send echo request).
 Routers periodically exchange routing tables with each of their neighbors.
 It compares the delay in its local table with the delay in the neighbor’s table and the
cost of reaching that neighbor.
 If the path via the neighbor has a lower cost, then the router updates its local table to
forward packets to the neighbor.
Advantages of Distance Vector routing –
 It is simpler to configure and maintain than link state routing.
Disadvantages of Distance Vector routing –
o It is slower to converge than link state.
o It is at risk from the count-to-infinity problem.
o It creates more traffic than link state since a hop count change
must be propagated to all routers and processed on each router.
Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) and its types

Address Resolution Protocol (ARP) is a communication protocol used to find the MAC
(Media Access Control) address of a device from its IP address. This protocol is used when a
device wants to communicate with another device on a Local Area Network or Ethernet.

Types of ARP

There are four types of Address Resolution Protocol, which is given

o Proxy ARP
o Gratuitous ARP
o Reverse ARP (RARP)
o Inverse ARP

Proxy ARP - Proxy ARP is a method through which a Layer 3 devices may respond to ARP
requests for a target that is in a different network from the sender. The Proxy ARP configured
router responds to the ARP and map the MAC address of the router with the target IP address
and fool the sender that it is reached at its destination.
Gratuitous ARP - Gratuitous ARP is an ARP request of the host that helps to identify the
duplicate IP address. It is a broadcast request for the IP address of the router. If an ARP
request is sent by a switch or router to get its IP address and no ARP responses are received,
so all other nodes cannot use the IP address allocated to that switch or router.

Reverse ARP (RARP) - It is a networking protocol used by the client system in a local area
network (LAN) to request its IPv4 address from the ARP gateway router table. A table is
created by the network administrator in the gateway-router that is used to find out the MAC
address to the corresponding IP address.

Inverse ARP (InARP) - Inverse ARP is inverse of the ARP, and it is used to find the IP
addresses of the nodes from the data link layer addresses. These are mainly used for the frame
relays, and ATM networks, where Layer 2 virtual circuit addressing are often acquired from
Layer 2 signaling. When using these virtual circuits, the relevant Layer 3 addresses are
available.

What is RARP ?
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Introduction :
The Reverse Address Resolution Protocol (RARP) is a networking protocol that is used to
map a physical (MAC) address to an Internet Protocol (IP) address. It is the reverse of the
more commonly used Address Resolution Protocol (ARP), which maps an IP address to a
MAC address.
RARP was developed in the early days of computer networking as a way to provide IP
addresses to diskless workstations or other devices that could not store their own IP
addresses. With RARP, the device would broadcast its MAC address and request an IP
address, and a RARP server on the network would respond with the corresponding IP
address.
While RARP was widely used in the past, it has largely been replaced by newer protocols
such as DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol), which provides more flexibility and
functionality in assigning IP addresses dynamically. However, RARP is still used in some
specialized applications, such as booting embedded systems and configuring network devices
with pre-assigned IP addresses.
RARP is specified in RFC 903 and operates at the data link layer of the OSI model. It has
largely been superseded by ARP and DHCP in modern networks, but it played an important
role in the development of computer networking protocols and continues to be used in
certain contexts.
RARP is abbreviation of Reverse Address Resolution Protocol which is a protocol based on
computer networking which is employed by a client computer to request its IP address from
a gateway server’s Address Resolution Protocol table or cache. The network administrator
creates a table in gateway-router, which is used to map the MAC address to
corresponding IP address.
Working of RARP :
The RARP is on the Network Access Layer and is employed to send data between two
points in a very network.
Each network participant has two unique addresses:- IP address (a logical address) and
MAC address (the physical address).
The IP address gets assigned by software and after that the MAC address is constructed into
the hardware.
The RARP server that responds to RARP requests, can even be any normal computer
within the network. However, it must hold the data of all the MAC addresses with their
assigned IP addresses. If a RARP request is received by the network, only these RARP
servers can reply to it. The info packet needs to be sent on very cheap layers of the network.
This implies that the packet is transferred to all the participants at the identical time.
The client broadcasts a RARP request with an Ethernet broadcast address and with its own
physical address. The server responds by informing the client its IP address.
What is TCP (Transmission Control Protocol)?
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TCP (Transmission Control Protocol) is one of the main protocols of the TCP/IP
suite. It lies between the Application and Network Layers which are used in providing
reliable delivery services. Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) ensures reliable and
efficient data transmission over the internet. What is Transmission Control Protocol
(TCP)?
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) is a connection-oriented protocol for
communications that helps in the exchange of messages between different devices over a
network. The Internet Protocol (IP), which establishes the technique for sending data
packets between computers, works with TCP.
The position of TCP is at the transport layer of the OSI model. TCP also helps in ensuring
that information is transmitted accurately by establishing a virtual connection between the
sender and receiver.
Working of Transmission Control Protocol (TCP)
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) model breaks down the data into small bundles and
afterward reassembles the bundles into the original message on the opposite end to make
sure that each message reaches its target location intact. Sending the information in little
bundles of information makes it simpler to maintain efficiency as opposed to sending
everything in one go.
Features of TCP/IP
Some of the most prominent features of Transmission control protocol are mentioned
below.
 Segment Numbering System: TCP keeps track of the segments being
transmitted or received by assigning numbers to each and every single one
of them..
 Connection Oriented: It means sender and receiver are connected to each
other till the completion of the process.
 Full Duplex: In TCP data can be transmitted from receiver to the sender or
vice – versa at the same time
 Flow Control
 Error Control
  Congestion Control
Advantages of TCP
 It is a reliable protocol.
 It provides an error-checking mechanism as well as one for recovery.
 It gives flow control.
 It makes sure that the data reaches the proper destination in the exact order that
it was sent.
 Open Protocol, not owned by any organization or individual.
 It assigns an IP address to each computer on the network and a domain name to
each site thus making each device site to be distinguishable over the network.
Disadvantages of TCP
 TCP is made for Wide Area Networks, thus its size can become an issue for
small networks with low resources.
 TCP runs several layers so it can slow down the speed of the network.
 It is not generic in nature. Meaning, it cannot represent any protocol stack other
than the TCP/IP suite. E.g., it cannot work with a Bluetooth connection.
 No modifications since their development around 30 years ago.

User Datagram Protocol (UDP)

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User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is a Transport Layer protocol. UDP is a part of the Internet
Protocol suite, referred to as UDP/IP suite. Unlike TCP, it is an unreliable and
connectionless protocol. So, there is no need to establish a connection before data
transfer. The UDP helps to establish low-latency and loss-tolerating connections over the
network. The UDP enables process-to-process communication.
What is User Datagram Protocol?
User Datagram Protocol (UDP) is one of the core protocols of the Internet Protocol (IP) suite.
It is a communication protocol used across the internet for time-sensitive transmissions such
as video playback or DNS lookups. Unlike Transmission Control Protocol (TCP), UDP is
connectionless and does not guarantee delivery, order, or error checking, making it a
lightweight and efficient option for certain types of data transmission.
UDP Header
UDP header is an 8-byte fixed and simple header, while for TCP it may vary from 20 bytes
to 60 bytes. The first 8 Bytes contain all necessary header information and the remaining
part consists of data. UDP port number fields are each 16 bits long, therefore the range for
port numbers is defined from 0 to 65535; port number 0 is reserved. Port numbers help to
distinguish different user requests or processes.
 Source Port: Source Port is a 2 Byte long field used to identify the port
number of the source.
 Destination Port: It is a 2 Byte long field, used to identify the port of the
destined packet.
 Length: Length is the length of UDP including the header and the data. It is a
16-bits field.
 Checksum: Checksum is 2 Bytes long field. It is the 16-bit one’s complement of
the one’s complement sum of the UDP header, the pseudo-header of information
from the IP header, and the data, padded with zero octets at the end (if
necessary) to make a multiple of two octets.
Applications of UDP
 Used for simple request-response communication when the size of data is less
and hence there is lesser concern about flow and error control.
 It is a suitable protocol for multicasting as UDP supports packet switching.

a. RIP(Routing Information Protocol)

b. VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol)
c. DHCP (Dynamic Host Configuration Protocol)
2. BOOTP, DHCP.
3. NNP (Network News Protocol)
Advantages of UDP
 Speed
 Simplicity
 Broadcast support:
 Smaller packet size:
 User Datagram Protocol (UDP)
Disadvantages of UDP
 No reliability
 No congestion control
 Vulnerable to attacks:
 Limited use cases:
Congestion Control in Computer Networks
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What is congestion?
A state occurring in network layer when the message traffic is so heavy that it slows down
network response time.

Effects of Congestion
 As delay increases, performance decreases.
 If delay increases, retransmission occurs, making situation worse.

Congestion control algorithms

 Congestion Control is a mechanism that controls the entry of data packets into the
network, enabling a better use of a shared network infrastructure and avoiding
congestive collapse.
 Congestive-Avoidance Algorithms (CAA) are implemented at the TCP layer as
the mechanism to avoid congestive collapse in a network.
 There are two congestion control algorithm which are as follows:

Leaky Bucket Algorithm

 The leaky bucket algorithm discovers its use in the context of network traffic
shaping or rate-limiting.
 A leaky bucket execution and a token bucket execution are predominantly used
for traffic shaping algorithms.
 This algorithm is used to control the rate at which traffic is sent to the network and
shape the burst traffic to a steady traffic stream.
 The disadvantages compared with the leaky-bucket algorithm are the inefficient
use of available network resources.
 The large area of network resources such as bandwidth is not being used
effectively.

Let us consider an example to understand

Imagine a bucket with a small hole in the bottom.No matter at what rate water enters the
bucket, the outflow is at constant rate.When the bucket is full with water additional water
entering spills over the sides and is lost.

Similarly, each network interface contains a leaky bucket and the following steps are
involved in leaky bucket algorithm:
1. When host wants to send packet, packet is thrown into the bucket.
 2. The bucket leaks at a constant rate, meaning the network interface transmits
packets at a constant rate.
3. Bursty traffic is converted to a uniform traffic by the leaky bucket.
4. In practice the bucket is a finite queue that outputs at a finite rate.
Token bucket Algorithm
 The leaky bucket algorithm has a rigid output design at an average rate
independent of the bursty traffic.
 In some applications, when large bursts arrive, the output is allowed to speed up.
This calls for a more flexible algorithm, preferably one that never loses
information. Therefore, a token bucket algorithm finds its uses in network traffic
shaping or rate-limiting.
 It is a control algorithm that indicates when traffic should be sent. This order
comes based on the display of tokens in the bucket.
 The bucket contains tokens. Each of the tokens defines a packet of predetermined
size. Tokens in the bucket are deleted for the ability to share a packet.
 When tokens are shown, a flow to transmit traffic appears in the display of tokens.
 No token means no flow sends its packets. Hence, a flow transfers traffic up to its
peak burst rate in good tokens in the bucket.
Domain Name System (DNS) in Application Layer
Last Updated : 07 May, 2024
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Domain Name System (DNS) is a hostname for IP address translation service. DNS is
a distributed database implemented in a hierarchy of name servers. It is an application layer
protocol for message exchange between clients and servers. It is required for the functioning
of the Internet.
What is the Need of DNS?
Every host is identified by the IP address but remembering numbers is very difficult for
people also the IP addresses are not static therefore a mapping is required to change the
domain name to the IP address. So DNS is used to convert the domain name of the websites
to their numerical IP address.
Types of Domain
There are various kinds of domain:
1. Generic
domains: .com(commercial), .edu(educational), .mil(military), .org(nonprofit
organization), .net(similar to commercial) all these are generic domains.
2. Country domain: .in (India) .us .uk
3. Inverse domain: if we want to know what is the domain name of the website. Ip
to domain name mapping. So DNS can provide both the mapping for example to
find the IP addresses of geeksforgeeks.org then we have to type
 Types of DNS

Organization of Domain
It is very difficult to find out the IP address associated with a website because there are
millions of websites and with all those websites we should be able to generate the IP address
immediately, there should not be a lot of delays for that to happen organization of the
database is very important.

Root DNS Server

 DNS record: Domain name, IP address what is the validity? what is the time to
live? and all the information related to that domain name. These records are stored
in a tree-like structure.
 Namespace: Set of possible names, flat or hierarchical. The naming system
maintains a collection of bindings of names to values – given a name, a resolution
mechanism returns the corresponding value.
 Name server: It is an implementation of the resolution mechanism.
DNS = Name service in Internet – A zone is an administrative unit, and a domain is a
subtree.
Domain Name Server
The client machine sends a request to the local name server, which, if the root does not find
the address in its database, sends a request to the root name server, which in turn, will route
the query to a top-level domain (TLD) or authoritative name server. The root name server
can also contain some hostName to IP address mappings.
DNS Servers Involved in Loading a Webpage
Upon loading the webpage, several DNS Servers are responsible for translating the domain
name into the corresponding IP Address of the web server hosting the website. Here is the
list of main DNS servers involved in loading a Webpage.
 Local DNS Resolver
 Root DNS Servers
 Top-Level Domain (TLD) DNS Servers
 Authoritative DNS Servers
 Web Server
Types of DNS Queries
There are basically three types of DNS Queries that occur in DNS Lookup. These are stated
below.
 Recursive Query: In this query, if the resolver is unable to find the record, in
that case, DNS client wants the DNS Server will respond to the client in any way
like with the requested source record or an error message.
 Iterative Query: Iterative Query is the query in which DNS Client wants the
best answer possible from the DNS Server.
 Non-Recursive Query: Non-Recursive Query is the query that occurs when a
DNS Resolver queries a DNS Server for some record that has access to it
because of the record that exists in its cache
Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP)
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Email is emerging as one of the most valuable services on the internet today. Most internet
systems use SMTP as a method to transfer mail from one user to another. SMTP is a push
protocol and is used to send the mail whereas POP (post office protocol) or IMAP (internet
message access protocol) is used to retrieve those emails at the receiver’s side.
What is Simple Mail Transfer Protocol?
SMTP is an application layer protocol. The client who wants to send the mail opens
a TCP connection to the SMTP server and then sends the mail across the connection. The
SMTP server is an always-on listening mode. As soon as it listens for a TCP connection from
any client, the SMTP process initiates a connection through port 25. After successfully
establishing a TCP connection the client process sends the mail instantly.

SMTP Protocol
The SMTP model is of two types:
 End-to-End Method
 Store-and-Forward Method
Components of SMTP
 Mail User Agent (MUA): It is a computer application that helps you in sending
and retrieving mail. It is responsible for creating email messages for transfer to
the mail transfer agent(MTA).
  Mail Submission Agent (MSA): It is a computer program that receives mail
from a Mail User Agent(MUA) and interacts with the Mail Transfer
Agent(MTA) for the transfer of the mail.
 Mail Transfer Agent (MTA): It is software that has the work to transfer mail
from one system to another with the help of SMTP.
 Mail Delivery Agent (MDA): A mail Delivery agent or Local Delivery Agent is
basically a system that helps in the delivery of mail to the local system.
Working of SMTP

Some SMTP Commands

 HELO: Identifies the client to the server, fully qualified domain name, only sent
once per session
 MAIL: Initiate a message transfer, the fully qualified domain of the originator
 RCPT: Follows MAIL, identifies an addressee, typically the fully qualified
name of the addressee, and for multiple addressees use one RCPT for each
addressee
 DATA: Send data line by line
Advantages of SMTP
 If necessary, the users can have a dedicated server.
 It allows for bulk mailing.
 Low cost and wide coverage area.
 Offer choices for email tracking.
 Reliable and prompt email delivery.
Disadvantages of SMTP
 SMTP’s common port can be blocked by several firewalls.
 SMTP security is a bigger problem.
 Its simplicity restricts how useful it can be.
 Just 7-bit ASCII characters can be used.

Simple Network Management Protocol (SNMP)

SNMP is an application layer protocol that uses UDP port number 161/162.SNMP is used
to monitor the network, detect network faults, and sometimes even to configure remote
devices.
Components of SNMP
There are mainly three components of SNMP:
1. SNMP Manager –
It is a centralized system used to monitor the network. It is also known as a
Network Management Station (NMS). A router that runs the SNMP server
program is called an agent, while a host that runs the SNMP client program is
called a manager.

2. SNMP agent –
It is a software management software module installed on a managed
device. The manager accesses the values stored in the database, whereas the
agent maintains the information in the database. To ascertain if the router is
congested or not, for instance, a manager can examine the relevant variables that
a router stores, such as the quantity of packets received and transmitted.
 3. Management Information Base –
MIB consists of information on resources that are to be managed. This
information is organized hierarchically. It consists of objects instances which are
essentially variables. A MIB, or collection of all the objects under management
by the manager, is unique to each agent. System, interface, address translation,
IP, udp, and egp , icmp, tcp are the eight categories that make up MIB. The mib
object is home to these groups.

SNMP security levels

The type of security algorithm applied to SNMP packets is defined by it. These are used in
only SNMPv3. There are 3 security levels namely:

1. noAuthNoPriv –
This (no authentication, no privacy) security level uses a community string for
authentication and no encryption for privacy.

2. authNopriv – This security level (authentication, no privacy) uses HMAC with

Md5 for authentication and no encryption is used for privacy.

3. authPriv – This security level (authentication, privacy) uses HMAC with Md5
or SHA for authentication and encryption uses the DES-56 algorithm.
SNMP messages

 GetRequest : It is simply used to retrieve data from SNMP agents. In response

to this, the SNMP agent responds with the requested value through a response
message.

 GetNextRequest : To get the value of a variable, the manager sends the agent
the GetNextRequest message. The values of the entries in a table are retrieved
using this kind of communication. The manager won’t be able to access the
values if it doesn’t know the entries’ indices. The GetNextRequest message is
used to define an object in certain circumstances.

 SetRequest : It is used by the SNMP manager to set the value of an object

instance on the SNMP agent.

 Response : When sent in response to the Set message, it will contain the newly
set value as confirmation that the value has been set.

 Trap : These are the message sent by the agent without being requested by the
manager. It is sent when a fault has occurred.

 InformRequest : It was added to SNMPv2c and is used to determine if the

manager has received the trap message or not. It is the same as a trap but adds an
acknowledgement that the trap doesn’t provide.

Versions of SNMP
There are three versions of SNMP including the below ones:
 1. SNMPv1 –
It uses community strings for authentication and uses UDP only. SNMPv1 is the
first version of the protocol. It is described in RFCs 1155 and 1157 and is simple
to set up.

2. SNMPv2c –
It uses community strings for authentication. It uses UDP but can be configured
to use TCP.
3.SNMPv3 –
It uses Hash-based MAC with MD5 or SHA for authentication and DES-56 for
privacy. This version uses TCP. Therefore, the conclusion is the higher the version
of SNMP, the more secure it will be.

Advantages of SNMP
 1. It is simple to implement.
 2. Agents are widely implemented.
 3. Agent level overhead is minimal.
 4. It is robust and extensible.
 5. Polling approach is good for LAN based managed object.
 6. It offers the best direct manager agent interface.
 7. SNMP meet a critical need.
Limitation of SNMP
 1. It is too simple and does not scale well.
 2. There is no object orietned data view.
 3. It has no standard control definition.
 4. It has many implementation specific (private MIB) extensions.
 5. It has high communication overhead due to polling

Email Protocols



Email protocols are a collection of protocols that are used to send and receive emails
properly. The email protocols provide the ability for the client to transmit the mail to or from
the intended mail server. Email protocols are a set of commands for sharing mails between
two computers. Email protocols establish communication between the sender and receiver for
the transmission of email. Email forwarding includes components like two computers sending
and receiving emails and the mail server. There are three basic types of email protocols.

Types of Email Protocols:

Three basic types of email protocols involved for sending and receiving mails are:
 SMTP
 POP3
 IMAP
SMTP (Simple Mail Transfer Protocol):

Simple Mail Transfer Protocol is used to send mails over the internet. SMTP is an application
layer and connection-oriented protocol. SMTP is efficient and reliable for sending emails.
SMTP uses TCP as the transport layer protocol. It handles the sending and receiving of
messages between email servers over a TCP/IP network. This protocol along with sending
emails also provides the feature of notification for incoming mails. When a sender sends an
email then the sender’s mail client sends it to the sender’s mail server and then it is sent to the
receiver mail server through SMTP. SMTP commands are used to identify the sender and
receiver email addresses along with the message to be sent.
Some of the SMTP commands are HELLO, MAIL FROM, RCPT TO, DATA, QUIT,
VERIFY, SIZE, etc. SMTP sends an error message if the mail is not delivered to the receiver
hence, reliable protocol.
For more details please refer to the Simple Mail Transfer Protocol (SMTP) article.

POP(Post Office Protocol):

Post Office Protocol is used to retrieve email for a single client. POP3 version is the current
version of POP used. It is an application layer protocol. It allows to access mail offline and
thus, needs less internet time. To access the message it has to be downloaded. POP allows
only a single mailbox to be created on the mail server. POP does not allow search facilities
Some of the POP commands are LOG IN, STAT, LIST, RETR, DELE, RSET, and QUIT.
For more details please refer to the POP Full-Form article.

IMAP(Internet Message Access Protocol):

Internet Message Access Protocol is used to retrieve mails for multiple clients. There are
several IMAP versions: IMAP, IMAP2, IMAP3, IMAP4, etc. IMAP is an application layer
protocol. IMAP allows to access email without downloading them and also supports email
download. The emails are maintained by the remote server. It enables all email operations
such as creating, manipulating, delete the email without reading it. IMAP allows you to
search emails. It allows multiple mailboxes to be created on multiple mail servers and allows
concurrent access. Some of the IMAP commands are: IMAP_LOGIN, CREATE, DELETE,
RENAME, SELECT, EXAMINE, and LOGOUT.
For more details please refer to the Internet Message Access Protocol (IMAP) article.

MIME(Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension Protocol):

Multipurpose Internet Mail Extension Protocol is an additional email protocol that allows
non-ASCII data to be sent through SMTP. It allows users to send and receive different types
of data like audio, images, videos and other application programs on the Internet. It allows to
send multiple attachments with single message. It allows to send message of unlimited
length.