✳️1.

Identification of 1°, 2°, and 3° Alcohols by Victor Meyer’s Method

🔹 Stepwise Reaction:

1. Conversion of Alcohol to Alkyl Iodide

R–OH + PI₃ ⟶ R–I + H₃PO₃

2. Conversion to Nitroalkane
R–I + AgNO₂ ⟶ R–NO₂ + AgI

3. Treatment with Nitrous Acid (generated in situ)

R–NO₂ + HNO₂ ⟶ Nitrolic or Pseudonitrol compound

4. Addition of Alkali (NaOH/KOH):

 Primary alcohol (1°) → Blood red colour

 Secondary alcohol (2°) → Blue colour

 Tertiary alcohol (3°) → No colour

🔹 Observation Table:

Alcohol Type Final Compound Colour

1° Alcohol Nitrolic acid Blood red
2° Alcohol Pseudonitrol Blue
3° Alcohol — No colou

✳️2. Separation of 1°, 2°, and 3° Amines by Hoffmann’s Method

🔹 Reagent Used: Diethyl oxalate (COOC₂H₅)₂

🔹 Reactions:

Primary Amine (1°):

R–NH₂ + (COOC₂H₅)₂ ⟶ Monoamide ester (solid)

Secondary Amine (2°):

R₂NH + (COOC₂H₅)₂ ⟶ Diamide ester (oily liquid)

Tertiary Amine (3°):

R₃N + (COOC₂H₅)₂ ⟶ No reaction

🔹 Observation Table:
 Reaction with Diethyl
Amine Type Oxalate Nature
1° Amine Forms monoamide Solid
ester
2° Amine Forms diamide ester Oily liquid
3° Amine No reaction Remains unchanged

1. Aldol Condensation Reaction

Reagents: Aldehyde or ketone with α-hydrogen, dilute NaOH
Conditions: Basic medium, heat
Reaction:
2 CH₃CHO + NaOH → CH₃CH(OH)CH₂CHO → [heat] → CH₃CH=CHCHO + H₂O
Product: α,β-Unsaturated aldehyde (crotonaldehyde)

✅ 2. Cannizzaro Reaction
Reagents: Aldehyde without α-hydrogen, concentrated NaOH
Conditions: Basic medium
Reaction:
2 HCHO + NaOH → HCOONa + CH₃OH
Products: Sodium formate and methanol

✅ 3. Perkin Condensation
Reagents: Aromatic aldehyde, acid anhydride, sodium salt of the acid
Conditions: Heat
Reaction:
C₆H₅CHO + (CH₃CO)₂O + NaOAc → C₆H₅CH=CHCOOH + CH₃COOH
Product: α,β-Unsaturated carboxylic acid (cinnamic acid)

✅ 4. Claisen Condensation
Reagents: Two ester molecules, strong base (e.g., NaOEt)
Conditions: Anhydrous, heat
Reaction:
2 CH₃COOC₂H₅ + NaOEt → CH₃COCH₂COOC₂H₅ + C₂H₅OH
Product: β-Keto ester

✅ 5. Benzoin Condensation
Reagents: Aromatic aldehyde (e.g., benzaldehyde), KCN
Conditions: Alcoholic medium
Reaction:
2 C₆H₅CHO + KCN → C₆H₅CHOHCOC₆H₅
Product: Benzoin

✅ 6. Carbylamine Reaction
Reagents: Primary amine, chloroform, alcoholic KOH
Conditions: Heat
Reaction:
RNH₂ + CHCl₃ + 3KOH → RNC + 3KCl + 3H₂O
Product: Isocyanide (carbylamine)

✅ 7. Reimer-Tiemann Reaction
Reagents: Phenol, chloroform, NaOH
Conditions: Heat
Reaction:
C₆H₅OH + CHCl₃ + 3NaOH → o-HO–C₆H₄–CHO + 3NaCl + 2H₂O
Product: Salicylaldehyde

✅ 8. Coupling Reaction (Azo Dye Preparation)

Reagents: Diazonium salt, activated aromatic compound (e.g., phenol, aniline)
Conditions: Cold, slightly alkaline medium
Reaction:
C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + C₆H₅OH → C₆H₅–N=N–C₆H₄OH + HCl
Product: Azo dye

✅ 9. Diazotization Reaction
Reagents: Primary aromatic amine, NaNO₂, HCl
Conditions: 0–5°C
Reaction:
C₆H₅NH₂ + NaNO₂ + HCl → C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ + 2H₂O
Product: Diazonium salt

✅ 10. Friedel-Crafts Reaction

Reagents: Aromatic compound, alkyl or acyl halide, AlCl₃
Conditions: Anhydrous
Reactions:
Alkylation: C₆H₆ + R–Cl → C₆H₅–R + HCl
Acylation: C₆H₆ + RCOCl → C₆H₅COR + HCl
Products: Alkylbenzene or acylbenzene

✅ 11. Hoffmann's Bromamide Reaction

Reagents: Primary amide, Br₂, NaOH
Conditions: Heat
Reaction:
RCONH₂ + Br₂ + 4NaOH → RNH₂ + Na₂CO₃ + 2NaBr + H₂O
Product: Primary amine (one carbon less)

✅ 12. Esterification Reaction

Reagents: Carboxylic acid, alcohol, concentrated H₂SO₄
Conditions: Heat under reflux
Reaction:
RCOOH + R'OH ⇌ RCOOR' + H₂O
Product: Ester

✅ 13. Carbonylation Reaction (Oxo Process)

Reagents: Alkene, CO, H₂, metal catalyst (e.g., Co or Rh complex)
Conditions: High pressure, heat
Reaction:
RCH=CH₂ + CO + H₂ → RCH₂CH₂CHO
Product: Aldehyde

14. Williamson's Ether Synthesis

Reagents: Alkoxide ion, primary alkyl halide
Conditions: Anhydrous
Reaction:
R–O⁻ + R'–X → R–O–R' + X⁻
Product: Ether

✅ 15. Rosenmund Reduction

Reagents: Acid chloride, H₂, Pd/BaSO₄ catalyst
Conditions: Hydrogenation
Reaction:
RCOCl + H₂ → RCHO + HCl
Product: Aldehyde

✅ 1. Iodoform Test
Reagents: I₂, NaOH
Condition: Warm
Positive Compounds: Methyl ketones (R–CO–CH₃) or ethanol
Reaction:
R–COCH₃ + 3I₂ + 4NaOH → R–COONa + CHI₃ (yellow ppt) + 3NaI + 2H₂O
Observation: Yellow precipitate of iodoform (CHI₃)

✅ 2. Silver Mirror Test (Tollens’ Test)

Reagent: Tollens’ reagent (ammoniacal AgNO₃)
Condition: Warm
Positive Compounds: Aldehydes
Reaction:
RCHO + 2[Ag(NH₃)₂]⁺ + 3OH⁻ → RCOO⁻ + 2Ag↓ + 4NH₃ + 2H₂O
Observation: Shiny silver mirror on the test tube wall

✅ 3. Nitrous Acid Test

Reagents: NaNO₂ + dil. HCl (forms HNO₂ in situ)
Condition: Cold (0–5°C)
For 1° Amines (Primary):
R–NH₂ + HNO₂ → R–N₂⁺Cl⁻ + 2H₂O
(diazonium salt, evolves N₂ gas)
Observation: Effervescence due to nitrogen gas
For 2° Amines (Secondary):
R₂NH + HNO₂ → R₂N–NO (nitrosoamine, oily layer)
Observation: Yellow oily compound
For 3° Amines (Tertiary):
R₃N + HNO₂ → No visible reaction
Observation: No visible change

✅ 4. 2,4-DNP Test (Dinitrophenylhydrazine Test)

Reagents: 2,4-Dinitrophenylhydrazine (2,4-DNP)
Condition: Slightly acidic
Positive Compounds: Aldehydes and ketones
Reaction:
R–CO–R' + H₂NNH–C₆H₃(NO₂)₂ → R–C=N–NH–C₆H₃(NO₂)₂ (orange ppt)
Observation: Yellow/orange precipitate

✅ 5. Carbylamine Test
Reagents: CHCl₃, alcoholic KOH
Condition: Heat
Positive Compounds: Primary amines
Reaction:
R–NH₂ + CHCl₃ + 3KOH → R–NC (isocyanide) + 3KCl + 3H₂O
Observation: Unpleasant foul smell of isocyanide

1. Reduction of Nitrobenzene in Different Medium

Reagents: Nitrobenzene, reducing agents
Medium 1 (in acidic medium):
Reagents: Sn/HCl or Fe/HCl
Reaction:
C₆H₅NO₂ + 3[H] → C₆H₅NH₂
Product: Aniline (C₆H₅NH₂)
Medium 2 (in alkaline medium):
Reagents: NaBH₄ or LiAlH₄
Reaction:
C₆H₅NO₂ + 3[H] → C₆H₅NH₂
Product: Aniline (C₆H₅NH₂)

✅ 2. Preparation of Alcohols Using Grignard Reagent

Reagents: Grignard reagent (RMgX), water
Reaction (with Aldehydes):
RMgX + R'CHO → RCH(OH)R'
Product: Secondary alcohol
Reaction (with Ketones):
RMgX + R'₂CO → RCH(OH)R'₂
Product: Tertiary alcohol
Reaction (with CO₂):
RMgX + CO₂ → RCOOMgX → H₂O → RCOOH
Product: Carboxylic acid (further reduced to alcohol)

✅ 3. Oxidation of Alcohols
Reagents: Various oxidizing agents (K₂Cr₂O₇, KMnO₄, PCC)
Reaction (Primary Alcohols):
Primary alcohol + [O] → Aldehyde → [O] → Carboxylic acid
Reaction (Secondary Alcohols):
Secondary alcohol + [O] → Ketone
Reaction (Tertiary Alcohols):
Tertiary alcohol + [O] → No reaction (oxidation-resistant)

✅ 4. Fermentation
Reagents: Glucose, yeast
Condition: Anaerobic (absence of oxygen)
Reaction:
C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2C₂H₅OH + 2CO₂
Product: Ethanol and Carbon dioxide (CO₂)

✅ 5. All Reactions of Chloroform

Reagents: Chloroform (CHCl₃)
Reaction 1 (with alcohols – Forming chloroformate):
CHCl₃ + R–OH → R–O–CCl₃
Reaction 2 (with bases – forming chloroform):
CHCl₃ + 3NaOH → CCl₃– + Na₃C₆H₅
Reaction 3 (with nitrous acid – forming phosgene):
CHCl₃ + HNO₂ → COCl₂ + 2H₂O + NaNO₂

✅ 1. DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)
Reagents: Chlorobenzene, chloral, anhydrous AlCl₃
Reaction:
C₆H₅Cl + CCl₃CHO → DDT (C₆H₄(Cl)₂C(Cl)₂CH₂)
Use: Insecticide (used for pest control)

✅ 2. BHC (Benzene Hexachloride)

Reagents: Benzene, chlorine, UV light or heat
Reaction:
C₆H₆ + Cl₂ → BHC (C₆H₆Cl₆)
Use: Insecticide (used in pest control)

✅ 3. Chloropicrin
Reagents: Chlorine, nitric acid
Reaction:
C₆H₆ + Cl₂ + HNO₃ → CCl₃NO₂ (Chloropicrin)
Use: Fumigant (used as a pesticide and soil disinfectant)

✅ 4. Phenolphthalein
Reagents: Phenol, phthalic anhydride, concentrated H₂SO₄
Reaction:
C₆H₆OH + C₆H₄(CO)₂O → Phenolphthalein
Use: pH indicator (commonly used in titrations)

✅ 5. Bakelite
Reagents: Phenol, formaldehyde, HCl or NaOH (as catalyst)
Reaction:
C₆H₅OH + CH₂O → Bakelite (Polymerization reaction)
Use: Electrical insulator (used in electrical components, kitchenware, and other
durable products)

✅ 6. Picric Acid (2,4,6-Trinitrophenol)

Reagents: Phenol, concentrated nitric acid
Reaction:
C₆H₆OH + 3HNO₃ → Picric acid (C₆H₂(NO₂)₃OH)
Use: Explosive material (used in munitions)
✅ 7. Urotropin (Hexamethylenetetramine)
Reagents: Formaldehyde, ammonia
Reaction:
6CH₂O + 4NH₃ → Urotropin (C₆H₁₂N₄)
Use: Urinary antiseptic (used in treating urinary tract infections)

✅ 8. TNT (Trinitrotoluene)
Reagents: Toluene, nitric acid, sulfuric acid
Reaction:
C₆H₅CH₃ + 3HNO₃ → TNT (C₆H₂(NO₂)₃CH₃)
Use: Explosive (used in munitions)

1. 1-Bromopropane to 2-Bromopropane and Vice Versa

 1-Bromopropane to 2-Bromopropane:

o Reagents: Alcoholic KOH

o Reaction:
CH₃CH₂CH₂Br → CH₃CHBrCH₃

o Mechanism: Elimination reaction, leading to the formation of 2-

bromopropane.

 2-Bromopropane to 1-Bromopropane:

o Reagents: Sodium in dry ethanol (Wurtz reaction)

o Reaction:
CH₃CHBrCH₃ → CH₃CH₂CH₂Br

o Mechanism: Reduction and re-arrangement to form 1-

bromopropane.

✅ 2. 1-Propanol to 2-Propanol and Vice Versa

 1-Propanol to 2-Propanol:

o Reagents: Acid-catalyzed dehydration, followed by hydroboration-

oxidation

o Reaction:
CH₃CH₂OH → H₂SO₄ → CH₃CH=CH₂ → BH₃, H₂O₂ → CH₃CHOHCH₃
 o Mechanism: Dehydration to propene, followed by hydroboration-
oxidation.

 2-Propanol to 1-Propanol:

o Reagents: Oxidation (to aldehyde) and reduction

o Reaction:
CH₃CHOHCH₃ → H₂O₂ → CH₃CHO → NaBH₄ → CH₃CH₂OH

o Mechanism: Oxidation to acetaldehyde, followed by reduction to 1-

propanol.

✅ 3. Methanamine to Ethanamine and Vice Versa

 Methanamine to Ethanamine:

o Reagents: Methyl iodide (CH₃I)

o Reaction:
CH₃NH₂ + CH₃I → C₂H₅NH₂

o Mechanism: Methylation to form ethanamine.

 Ethanamine to Methanamine:

o Reagents: Excess of methyl iodide

o Reaction:
C₂H₅NH₂ → CH₃I → CH₃NH₂

o Mechanism: Methylation to methanamine.

✅ 4. Phenol to Anisole (Methoxybenzene) and Vice Versa

 Phenol to Anisole:

o Reagents: Methanol, H₂SO₄ (acid catalyst)

o Reaction:
C₆H₆OH + CH₃OH → C₆H₅OCH₃

o Mechanism: Methanol reacts with phenol in the presence of sulfuric

acid to form anisole.

 Anisole to Phenol:
 o Reagents: Acidic hydrolysis

o Reaction:
C₆H₅OCH₃ + H₂O → C₆H₆OH + CH₃OH

o Mechanism: Hydrolysis of anisole to regenerate phenol.

✅ 5. Ethoxyethane to Methoxyethane
 Ethoxyethane to Methoxyethane:

o Reagents: Excess methanol, concentrated H₂SO₄

o Reaction:
C₂H₅OCH₂CH₃ → CH₃OH, H₂SO₄ → CH₃OCH₂CH₃

o Mechanism: Methanol reacts with ethoxyethane in the presence of

sulfuric acid to form methoxyethane.

✅ 6. Phenol/Aniline to Azo Dye

 Phenol/Aniline to Azo Dye:

o Reagents: Diazonium salt (e.g., sodium nitrite and HCl),

phenol/aniline

o Reaction:
C₆H₅NH₂ + NaNO₂ + HCl → C₆H₅N₂⁺Cl⁻ → C₆H₅–N=N–C₆H₄OH (Azo dye)

o Mechanism: Azo coupling reaction to form azo dye.

✅ 7. Ethanal/Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal
 Ethanal to 3-Hydroxybutanal:

o Reagents: Aldol condensation

o Reaction:
CH₃CHO + CH₃CHO → CH₃CH(OH)CH₂CHO

o Mechanism: Aldol condensation to form 3-hydroxybutanal.

 Ethanol to 3-Hydroxybutanal:

o Reagents: Aldol condensation

 o Reaction:
C₂H₅OH + CH₃CHO → CH₃CH(OH)CH₂CHO

✅ 8. Ethanol to 2-Hydroxypropanoic Acid

 Reagents: Oxidation of ethanol

o Reaction:
C₂H₅OH → K₂Cr₂O₇, H₂SO₄ → CH₃CHO → Oxidation → 2-
Hydroxypropanoic acid (Lactic acid)

✅ 9. Propanone (Acetone) to 2-Hydroxy-2-methylpropanoic Acid

 Reagents: Hydroxylation (oxidation)

o Reaction:
(CH₃)₂CO + Oxidizing agent → 2-Hydroxy-2-methylpropanoic acid

✅ 10. Phenol to Toluene

 Reagents: Reduction

o Reaction:
C₆H₆OH + 3H₂ → (Pd catalyst) → C₆H₆CH₃

✅ 11. Ethanol to Propanol/Propanoic Acid

 Ethanol to Propanol:

o Reagents: Hydrogenation

o Reaction:
C₂H₅OH → H₂, Ni → C₃H₇OH

 Ethanol to Propanoic acid:

o Reagents: Oxidation

o Reaction:
C₂H₅OH → K₂Cr₂O₇, H₂SO₄ → C₂H₅COOH

✅ 12. Methanamide to Ethanamine

 Reagents: Reduction
 o Reaction:
HCONH₂ → LiAlH₄ → C₂H₅NH₂

1. Why is chloroform stored in a dark bottle containing ethanol?

Chloroform decomposes when exposed to light, forming phosgene (COCl₂).
Ethanol acts as a stabilizer by preventing this decomposition.
Reaction:
CHCl₃ + light → COCl₂ (phosgene)
Ethanol helps in preventing this by reacting with the phosgene, forming an
ester.

2. Why does chloroform not give a white precipitate with aqueous AgNO₃?
Chloroform (CHCl₃) contains chlorine attached to carbon and not as an ionic
halide (Cl⁻). Hence, it doesn't react with AgNO₃ to form a white precipitate of
AgCl.

3. Why is nucleophilic substitution reaction difficult in haloarene?

In haloarenes, the halogen atom is attached to an aromatic ring, and the
electron-rich nature of the ring prevents nucleophilic attack. The halogen is
also involved in resonance, making the carbon-halogen bond more stable
and less reactive to nucleophiles.

4. Why is the boiling point of ethanol greater than that of ethoxyethane?

Ethanol has hydrogen bonding between molecules, which requires more
energy to break. Ethoxyethane, lacking hydrogen bonds, has weaker
intermolecular forces, leading to a lower boiling point.
Reaction:
Ethanol (C₂H₅OH) ↔ Hydrogen bonding ↔ Higher boiling point.

5. Why is phenol more acidic than aliphatic alcohol?

Phenol’s conjugate base (phenoxide ion) is stabilized by resonance with the
benzene ring, whereas alcohols do not have such stabilization. This makes
phenol more willing to lose a proton.
Reaction:
C₆H₅OH ⇌ C₆H₅O⁻ + H⁺

6. Why does nitrobenzene undergo electrophilic substitution at the meta

position?
The nitro group is electron-withdrawing and deactivates the ring, making
electrophilic substitution more favorable at the meta position, where the
 electron density is less affected.
Reaction:
NO₂-C₆H₅ → meta-substitution.

7. Why is chlorobenzene o/p-directing towards electrophilic substitution?

Chlorine is an electron-donating group due to its lone pairs, which increases
the electron density at the ortho and para positions, making those positions
more reactive for electrophilic substitution.
Reaction:
C₆H₅Cl → Ortho/para-substitution.

8. Why is it dangerous to boil a sample of ether stored for a long time?

Ether undergoes auto-oxidation when exposed to air, forming peroxides
that are highly explosive. Heating can lead to dangerous explosions due to
the presence of peroxides.

9. Why is ether stored in a bottle containing iron wire?

Iron wire acts as a reducing agent that prevents the formation of peroxides
by breaking down any peroxide molecules formed during storage.

10.Give a suitable test to distinguish ethanamine from N-methyl

methanamine.
Ethanamine (CH₃CH₂NH₂) reacts with nitrous acid (HNO₂) to form an
unstable diazonium salt, which degrades. N-methyl methanamine
(CH₃NHCH₃) does not react similarly.
Reaction with nitrous acid:
C₂H₅NH₂ + HNO₂ → diazonium salt (unstable).

11.Write a chemical test to distinguish ethanoic acid from methanoic acid.

Ethanoic acid (acetic acid) and methanoic acid (formic acid) can be
distinguished by their reaction with alcohols to form esters.
Reaction:
Methanoic acid forms a distinctive ester, while ethanoic acid reacts similarly
but has a different odor and physical properties.

12.Why is chloroacetic acid stronger acid than acetic acid?

The chlorine in chloroacetic acid is electron-withdrawing, which stabilizes
the conjugate base by pulling electron density away, making it more acidic.
Reaction:
CH₂ClCOOH ⇌ CH₂ClCOO⁻ + H⁺
13.Why is formic acid stronger acid than acetic acid?
Formic acid has a smaller alkyl group (hydrogen) compared to acetic acid,
making the negative charge on the conjugate base more stabilized, thus
increasing its acidity.
Reaction:
HCOOH ⇌ HCOO⁻ + H⁺ (Stronger acidity).

14.Why is the amino group of aniline protected before nitration?

Aniline is highly reactive and can undergo unwanted reactions during
nitration due to its electron-donating amino group. It is protected to prevent
such side reactions.

15.Write the functional isomers of C₃H₆O with their IUPAC names. Give a
chemical test to distinguish them.
Functional isomers of C₃H₆O include:

 Propan-2-ol

 Propan-1-al (propanal)

 Acetone (propan-2-one)
Test to distinguish:
Acetone gives a positive iodoform test, but propan-1-al and propan-2-ol do
not.

 what happens when

1. Write an unsymmetrical ether of C₃H₈O. How would you prepare this

ether using Williamson’s synthesis?
Unsymmetrical ether: Methoxyethane (CH₃OCH₂CH₃)
Preparation via Williamson’s synthesis:
CH₃O⁻ + C₂H₅I → CH₃OCH₂CH₃ + I⁻

1. Sodium benzoate is heated with sodalime (sodium hydroxide and

calcium oxide):
This reaction is a decarboxylation reaction. Sodium benzoate is heated with
sodalime, and the carboxyl group (-COOH) is removed as carbon dioxide,
forming toluene (methylbenzene).
Reaction:
C₆H₅COONa + NaOH (sodalime) → C₆H₅CH₃ + Na₂CO₃

2. Phenol is heated with zinc dust:

When phenol (C₆H₅OH) is heated with zinc dust, hydrogen is removed, and a
 reduction reaction occurs, leading to the formation of benzene.
Reaction:
C₆H₅OH + Zn → C₆H₆ + ZnO

3. Chlorobenzene is treated with chloral (trichloroacetaldehyde):

Chlorobenzene reacts with chloral (CCl₃CHO) in the presence of a Lewis acid
to form 2,4,6-trichlorobenzaldehyde via an electrophilic substitution.
Reaction:
C₆H₅Cl + CCl₃CHO → C₆H₄(Cl)₃CHO

4. Ethyl alcohol (ethanol) is treated with acetic acid (ethanoic acid):

When ethanol (C₂H₅OH) is treated with acetic acid (CH₃COOH) in the
presence of an acid catalyst (such as sulfuric acid), ethyl acetate (an ester) is
formed through an esterification reaction.
Reaction:
C₂H₅OH + CH₃COOH → CH₃COOC₂H₅ + H₂O

5. Phenol is treated with aqueous Br₂:

When phenol (C₆H₅OH) is treated with aqueous bromine (Br₂), the reaction
proceeds to form 2,4,6-tribromophenol due to the electrophilic substitution
at the ortho and para positions of the aromatic ring.
Reaction:
C₆H₅OH + 3Br₂ → C₆H₂Br₃OH + 3HBr

6. Aniline is treated with aqueous Br₂:

When aniline (C₆H₅NH₂) is treated with aqueous bromine, the amino group (-
NH₂) activates the aromatic ring, leading to bromination at the ortho and
para positions, producing 2,4,6-tribromoaniline.
Reaction:
C₆H₅NH₂ + 3Br₂ → C₆H₂Br₃NH₂ + 3HBr

7. Phenol is treated with benzene diazonium chloride:

When phenol (C₆H₅OH) reacts with benzene diazonium chloride (C₆H₅N₂Cl),
an azo coupling reaction occurs, resulting in the formation of azo
compounds. The product is 4-hydroxyazobenzene.
Reaction:
C₆H₅OH + C₆H₅N₂Cl → C₆H₄(N₂C₆H₅)OH

8. Ethoxy ethane is treated with excess HI (Hydriodic acid):

When ethoxyethane (C₂H₅OC₂H₅) is treated with excess HI, Williamson’s
synthesis occurs, resulting in the cleavage of the ether bond to form ethyl
 iodide (C₂H₅I) and methanol (CH₃OH).
Reaction:
C₂H₅OC₂H₅ + 2HI → C₂H₅I + CH₃OH

9. Methanal (formaldehyde) is treated with ammonia:

When formaldehyde (CH₂O) reacts with ammonia (NH₃), it undergoes an
addition reaction to form hexamethylenetetramine (urea-formaldehyde),
also known as urotropin.
Reaction:
6CH₂O + 4NH₃ → C₆H₁₂N₄ + 6H₂O

10.Methanal/benzaldehyde is treated with NaOH:

This reaction is a Cannizzaro reaction. In the presence of a strong base,
methanal undergoes disproportionation, leading to the formation of formic
acid and methanol.
Reaction (with methanal):
2CH₂O + NaOH → HCOOH + CH₃OH
Reaction (with benzaldehyde):
Benzaldehyde undergoes the same reaction under basic conditions, forming
benzyl alcohol and benzoic acid.

11.Ethanal/propanone is treated with NaOH:

Both ethanal (acetaldehyde) and propanone (acetone) react with NaOH in an
aldol condensation reaction to form β-hydroxy aldehydes or ketones, which
may further undergo dehydration to form α,β-unsaturated compounds.
Reaction (with ethanal):
CH₃CHO + NaOH → CH₃CH(OH)CHO → CH₃CH=CHCHO (after dehydration)
Reaction (with propanone):
CH₃COCH₃ + NaOH → CH₃CH(OH)COCH₃ → CH₃CH=CHCOCH₃ (after
dehydration)

12.Aldehyde/ketone is treated with hydroxylamine:

When an aldehyde or ketone reacts with hydroxylamine (NH₂OH), it forms
an oxime.
Reaction (with aldehyde):
RCHO + NH₂OH → RCH=NOH (oxime)
Reaction (with ketone):
RCOR' + NH₂OH → RCO=NOH (oxime)

13.Ethanol is heated with conc. H₂SO₄:

When ethanol is heated with concentrated sulfuric acid, it undergoes
 dehydration to form ethylene (ethene), a common alkene.
Reaction:
C₂H₅OH → (conc. H₂SO₄, heat) → C₂H₄ + H₂O

14.Acetic acid is treated with P₂O₅:

When acetic acid (CH₃COOH) is treated with phosphorus pentoxide (P₂O₅), it
undergoes dehydration to form acetone.
Reaction:
CH₃COOH → P₂O₅ → (CH₃)₂CO (acetone)

1. Monomers and One Use:

(a) Bakelite

 Monomer: Phenol (C₆H₅OH) and Formaldehyde (CH₂O)

 Use: Electrical insulators, switches, plastic parts in vehicles and electronics.

(b) Nylon-6,6

 Monomer: Hexamethylenediamine (C₆H₁₄N₂) and Adipic acid (C₆H₁₀O₄)

 Use: Textiles, ropes, and industrial fabrics.

(c) Polystyrene

 Monomer: Styrene (C₆H₅CH=CH₂)

 Use: Disposable cutlery, CD cases, packaging materials.

(d) Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

 Monomer: Vinyl chloride (C₂H₃Cl)

 Use: Plumbing pipes, window frames, flooring, electrical cables.

(e) Teflon

 Monomer: Tetrafluoroethylene (C₂F₄)

 Use: Non-stick coating for cookware, insulation for electrical wires.

2. Example and One Use:

(i) Analgesic, Antipyretic, Antibiotics, Tranquilizer, and Antiseptic Drug:
 Analgesic: Aspirin
 o Use: Relieves pain and reduces fever.

 Antipyretic: Paracetamol

o Use: Reduces fever.

 Antibiotic: Penicillin

o Use: Treats bacterial infections.

 Tranquilizer: Diazepam

o Use: Relieves anxiety and stress.

 Antiseptic Drug: Iodine solution

o Use: Disinfects wounds and prevents infection.

(ii) Herbicide and Pesticide:

 Herbicide: Glyphosate

o Use: Kills weeds in agricultural fields.

 Pesticide: DDT (Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane)

o Use: Controls insect pests in agriculture.

(iii) Germicide and Insecticide:

 Germicide: Chlorine bleach

o Use: Disinfects surfaces and kills harmful microorganisms.

 Insecticide: Malathion

o Use: Controls insects in agriculture and residential areas.

(iv) Natural and Synthetic Dye:

 Natural Dye: Indigo

o Use: Dyes textiles, especially denim.

 Synthetic Dye: Methylene blue

o Use: Stains biological samples for microscopic examination and is

used in the textile industry.
3. Flow Sheet Diagram for the Production of Cement:
1. Raw Materials Preparation:

 Limestone (CaCO₃), Clay, Gypsum, and Iron Ore are collected.

2. Crushing & Grinding:

 The raw materials (limestone and clay) are crushed and ground into a fine
powder.

3. Homogenization:

 The raw powder is mixed and blended to ensure uniformity in composition.

4. Preheating:

 The raw meal is preheated using hot gases in a Preheater Tower.

5. Calcination:

 In the Rotary Kiln, the preheated raw meal is heated at around 900°C,
leading to the formation of Calcium Oxide (CaO) and the release of Carbon
Dioxide (CO₂) during the calcination of limestone.

6. Clinker Formation:

 The material is heated to about 1450°C, resulting in the formation of Clinker

(a solid substance).

7. Cooling:

 The hot clinker is rapidly cooled using air or water.

8. Grinding of Clinker:

 The cooled clinker is ground into a fine powder and mixed with a small
amount of gypsum to control the setting time.

9. Packaging & Distribution:

 The final product, Portland Cement (OPC), is packed into bags and
distributed.
4. Difference Between OPC and PPC Cement:
OPC (Ordinary PPC (Pozzolana
Feature Portland Cement) Portland Cement)
Composition Contains only clinker Contains clinker,
and gypsum. gypsum, and
pozzolanic material
(e.g., fly ash, volcanic
ash).
Strength Higher initial Lower initial strength
strength. but gains strength
over time.
Durability Less durable in More durable and
aggressive resistant to chemical
environments. attacks.
Setting Time Quick setting time. Slower setting time
compared to OPC.
Use Suitable for general Used in structures
construction exposed to
purposes. aggressive
environments (e.g.,
marine
environments).
Environmental Higher carbon More
Impact footprint due to the environmentally
absence of friendly due to the
supplementary use of industrial
materials. waste (fly ash).
Cost Generally cheaper Slightly more
than PPC. expensive than OPC
due to the cost of
supplementary
materials.

5. Flow Sheet Diagram for Paper Production:

1. Wood Chipping:
  Wood logs are chipped into small pieces.

2. Pulping:

 The wood chips are subjected to Chemical or Mechanical Pulping processes:

o Chemical Pulping: Chemicals like sodium hydroxide and sodium

sulfide break down the wood into fibers (Kraft process).

o Mechanical Pulping: Wood chips are ground to release fibers.

3. Washing & Screening:

 The pulp is washed to remove impurities and screened to ensure uniform

fiber quality.

4. Bleaching (Optional):

 For white paper, the pulp undergoes bleaching using chlorine or oxygen-
based chemicals.

5. Beating and Refining:

 The pulp is beaten and refined to improve fiber bonding properties.

6. Paper Machine Formation:

 The refined pulp is diluted with water and spread onto a screen to form a
thin sheet.

7. Pressing and Drying:

 The wet paper passes through press rollers to remove excess water and is
then dried in drying cylinders.

8. Finishing (Optional):

 The paper can be treated, coated, or pressed to achieve specific properties

(e.g., glossiness, smoothness).

9. Cutting & Packaging:

 The paper is cut into sheets or rolls and packaged for distribution.
6. Difference Between Nuclear Fusion and Fission Reaction:
Feature Nuclear Fusion Nuclear Fission
Process Two light atomic A heavy atomic
nuclei combine to nucleus splits into
form a heavier two lighter nuclei.
nucleus.
Energy Released A large amount of A large amount of
energy is released energy is released
when nuclei when a nucleus
combine. splits.
Products Produces small Produces smaller
nuclei (like isotopes nuclei (fission
of hydrogen) and fragments) and
energy. energy.
Examples Hydrogen isotopes Uranium-235 or
like deuterium and plutonium-239
tritium fuse to form fissions into smaller
helium. nuclei.
Energy Source Powers the sun and Powers nuclear
stars. reactors and atomic
bombs.
Byproducts Produces no long- Produces radioactive
lived radioactive fission fragments.
waste.

physical chemistry

. Selection of Indicators:
Indicators are substances that change color at a particular pH and are used to
determine the endpoint of a titration. The selection of an appropriate indicator
depends on the pH at the equivalence point of the titration.

 For Strong Acid-Strong Base Titration:

Indicator: Phenolphthalein (colorless to pink at pH 7) or Methyl Orange
(red at pH < 4 and yellow at pH > 7).

 For Strong Acid-Weak Base Titration:

Indicator: Methyl Orange (changes color at a pH of around 4.4 to 6.2).
  For Weak Acid-Strong Base Titration:
Indicator: Phenolphthalein (colorless to pink at pH around 8 to 10).

 For Weak Acid-Weak Base Titration:

Indicators like Universal Indicator or Litmus Paper can be used, as the pH
change is more gradual.

2. Different Concepts of Acids and Bases and Their Limitations:

 Arrhenius Concept:
An acid is a substance that increases the concentration of H⁺ ions (protons)
in an aqueous solution, and a base increases the concentration of OH⁻ ions.
Limitation: Only applies to aqueous solutions and does not explain acid-
base reactions in non-aqueous solvents.

 Bronsted-Lowry Concept:
An acid is a proton donor, and a base is a proton acceptor.
Limitation: It does not account for acid-base reactions that do not involve
protons, such as in the case of Lewis acids and bases.

 Lewis Concept:
An acid is an electron pair acceptor, and a base is an electron pair donor.
Limitation: It doesn't describe all acid-base reactions, especially those that
do not involve direct electron pair donation or acceptance.

3. Common Ion Effect and Solubility Product Principle:

 Common Ion Effect:
The presence of a common ion reduces the solubility of a salt in a solution
that contains one of its constituent ions.
Example: If NaCl is dissolved in a solution of HCl (which also provides Cl⁻
ions), the solubility of NaCl decreases due to the common Cl⁻ ion.

 Solubility Product (Ksp) Principle:

The solubility product is the equilibrium constant for the dissolution of a
sparingly soluble salt. It is used to predict the solubility of salts in water and
can explain precipitation reactions.

Application in Salt Analysis:

Precipitation reactions can be predicted using Ksp values, and by adding a
common ion, the solubility of a salt can be decreased, which is useful in
qualitative analysis of ions in solutions.
4. Buffer Solution:
A buffer solution is a solution that resists changes in pH when small amounts of
acid or base are added. It usually contains a weak acid and its conjugate base (or a
weak base and its conjugate acid).

 Example: A mixture of acetic acid and sodium acetate forms a buffer

solution.

 Mechanism: The buffer works by neutralizing added acid or base. For

example, if H⁺ is added, the conjugate base (acetate) reacts with it to form
acetic acid, minimizing the pH change.

5. Electrochemical Series:
The electrochemical series is a list of elements arranged according to their
standard electrode potentials. It helps predict the direction of electron flow in
electrochemical reactions.

 Reactivity: Elements with more negative electrode potentials (like lithium)

are stronger reducing agents, while elements with more positive electrode
potentials (like fluorine) are stronger oxidizing agents.

6. Standard Electrodes:
Standard electrodes are reference electrodes used to measure the potential of
other electrodes. A common example is the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE),
which is defined as 0 V.

7. Hess’s Law:
Hess’s Law states that the total enthalpy change for a reaction is the sum of the
enthalpy changes for the steps into which the reaction can be divided, regardless
of the path taken.

 Example: If the reaction is carried out in two steps, the total enthalpy
change is the sum of the enthalpy changes of the individual steps.

8. Prediction of Feasibility/Spontaneity of Reactions:

The spontaneity of a reaction can be predicted using Gibbs free energy change
(ΔG):

 ΔG < 0: Reaction is spontaneous.

  ΔG = 0: System is at equilibrium.

 ΔG > 0: Reaction is non-spontaneous.

Spontaneity can also be predicted using entropy (ΔS) and enthalpy (ΔH) changes:

 ΔG = ΔH - TΔS

 If ΔH is negative and ΔS is positive, the reaction is likely spontaneous.

9. Differences Between Order and Molecularity of Reaction:

 Order of Reaction:
The sum of the powers of the concentration terms in the rate equation. It
can be a fractional or integer value and is determined experimentally.

 Molecularity of Reaction:
The number of molecules (or ions) involved in an elementary reaction.
Molecularity is always a whole number and is specific to elementary
reactions.

10. Collision Theory of Reaction Rate:

According to the collision theory, for a reaction to occur, the reactant molecules
must collide with proper orientation and sufficient energy (called the activation
energy). The rate of reaction depends on the frequency of effective collisions, the
concentration of reactants, and the temperature.

11. Factors Affecting Rate of Reaction:

 Concentration: Higher concentration of reactants increases the reaction
rate.

 Temperature: Higher temperature increases the reaction rate by providing

more energy to overcome the activation energy.

 Catalysts: Catalysts speed up reactions by lowering the activation energy.

 Surface Area: Increased surface area increases the rate of reaction by

providing more sites for collision.

12. Derivation of Integrated Rate Equation and Half-Life for First

Order Reaction:
For a first-order reaction, the rate equation is:
  Rate = k[A] (where k is the rate constant and [A] is the concentration of
reactant).

The integrated rate law for a first-order reaction is:

ln [ A ]=ln [ A 0 ) − k t ln[A]=ln[A0]−kt

Where:

 [A] = concentration of the reactant at time t.

 [A₀] = initial concentration.

 k = rate constant.

 t = time.

For half-life (t₁/₂) of a first-order reaction:

0.693
t 1 ¿2 = t1/2=k0.693
k

This shows that the half-life for a first-order reaction is independent of the initial
concentration.

Normality and Normality Factor:

 Normality (N):
Normality is a measure of concentration that is based on the equivalent
weight of a substance in a solution. It is defined as the number of
equivalents of solute dissolved in one liter of solution. The formula is:

Equivalents of solute
N= N=Volume of solution (in liters)Equivalents of so
Volume of solution (in liters)
lute

 Normality Factor:
The normality factor is a correction factor that accounts for the number of
reactive units (equivalents) provided by one molecule of solute in a given
reaction. It depends on the type of reaction and is used to adjust the
equivalent weight of a substance when it undergoes different types of
reactions (e.g., acid-base, redox).

Number of equivalents
Normality Factor= Normality Factor=Molecular w
Molecular weight of the substance
eight of the substanceNumber of equivalents
2. End Point and Equivalent Point:
 End Point:
The endpoint is the point in a titration where the indicator changes color,
signifying that the titration is complete. It is an experimental observation
and may not exactly coincide with the equivalence point.

 Equivalent Point:
The equivalence point is the point in a titration at which the amount of
titrant added is chemically equivalent to the amount of substance present in
the sample. At this point, the number of equivalents of acid equals the
number of equivalents of base, or the reactants have completely reacted.

3. Titration Error:
Titration error refers to the difference between the endpoint (where the indicator
changes color) and the equivalence point (where the stoichiometrically equivalent
amounts of reactants are present). Titration error can arise from factors such as:

 Inaccurate measurement of the titrant or analyte.

 Misjudging the color change of the indicator.

 Incomplete reactions or side reactions.

4. Seminormal Solution and Decinormal Solution:

 Seminormal Solution:
A seminormal solution has a concentration of 0.5 N, meaning it is half as
concentrated as a normal solution.

 Decinormal Solution:
A decinormal solution has a concentration of 0.1 N, which is one-tenth the
concentration of a normal solution.

5. Indicator:
An indicator is a substance that undergoes a distinct color change at a particular
pH or under certain conditions during a chemical reaction. Indicators are
commonly used in titrations to visually determine the endpoint.

 Example: Phenolphthalein is an indicator used in acid-base titrations. It

changes from colorless in acidic solution to pink in basic solution.
6. Standard Solution (Primary and Secondary) with Example:
 Primary Standard Solution:
A primary standard solution is a solution prepared from a highly pure
substance (with known composition and high stability) that can be directly
weighed and dissolved to prepare a solution of known concentration.

o Example: Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃) is often used as a primary

standard for acid-base titrations.

 Secondary Standard Solution:

A secondary standard solution is a solution whose concentration is
determined by titrating it against a primary standard. It is not directly
prepared from a pure substance of known concentration.

o Example: A solution of hydrochloric acid (HCl) is usually a secondary

standard because its concentration is determined by titration with a
primary standard like sodium carbonate.

Primary Standard Substances:

A primary standard substance is a substance that is highly pure, stable, and has a
known chemical composition. It can be directly weighed and used to prepare
solutions of known concentration without the need for any standardization. These
substances must also be able to undergo a complete and predictable reaction in a
given solvent.

Requisites for a substance to be a primary standard:

 It must be pure and have a known, stable, and reproducible composition.

 It must not absorb moisture from the atmosphere (hygroscopic substances

are not used).

 It should react completely with the titrant and the reaction should be easy
to detect.

 It should have high stability during storage, so it doesn't decompose over

time.

 The reaction between the primary standard and the titrant should be simple
and well-defined.
Examples: Sodium carbonate (Na₂CO₃), potassium hydrogen phthalate (KHP), and
oxalic acid.

3. Molarity and Normality:

 Molarity (M):
Molarity is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution. It
is a measure of concentration.

Moles of solute
Molarity (M)= Molarity (M)=Volume of solution (in lit
Volume of solution (in liters)
ers)Moles of solute

 Normality (N):
Normality is a measure of the concentration of a solution in terms of
equivalents per liter. The equivalent is based on the chemical reactivity of
the solute.

Equivalents of solute
Normality (N)= Normality (N)=Volume of solution (in
Volume of solution (in liters)
liters)Equivalents of solute

Relationship between Molarity and Normality:

Normality=Molarity × Equivalent factor Normality=Molarity×Equivalent factor

The equivalent factor depends on the type of reaction involved (e.g., acid-base,
redox).

4. When HCl is Passed Through Saturated Solution of NaOH:

When hydrochloric acid (HCl) is passed through a saturated solution of sodium
hydroxide (NaOH), the following neutralization reaction takes place:
HCl+ NaOH→ NaCl+ H2 O )HCl+NaOH→NaCl+H2O

This reaction forms sodium chloride (NaCl) and water. The acid neutralizes the
base, and the pH of the solution would decrease to neutral, assuming enough HCl
is added.
5. Predicting the Nature of Aqueous Solutions (CuSO₄, CaCl₂,
Na₂CO₃, NaCl):
 CuSO₄ (Copper(II) sulfate):
The solution of CuSO₄ will be acidic because Cu²⁺ ions hydrolyze in water,
forming a weak acid (H₂SO₄).

 CaCl₂ (Calcium chloride):

The solution of CaCl₂ will be neutral because Ca²⁺ and Cl⁻ ions do not
significantly affect the pH of the solution.

 Na₂CO₃ (Sodium carbonate):

The solution of Na₂CO₃ will be basic because the carbonate ion (CO₃²⁻) reacts
with water to form hydroxide ions (OH⁻), making the solution alkaline.

 NaCl (Sodium chloride):

The solution of NaCl will be neutral because both Na⁺ and Cl⁻ ions do not
affect the pH significantly.

6. Ostwald’s Dilution Law and Limitation:

 Ostwald's Dilution Law:
This law applies to weak electrolytes and states that the degree of
dissociation (α) of a weak electrolyte is inversely proportional to the square
root of its concentration. Mathematically:

α=
√ K c α=CKcwhere α α is the degree of dissociation, K Kc is the dissociation
c
C
constant, and C C is the concentration of the electrolyte.

 Limitation:
The law is only applicable to weak electrolytes that dissociate to a small
extent. For strong electrolytes or very dilute solutions, the law may not hold.

7. Definition of pH and pOH and Their Relation:

 pH:
pH is the negative logarithm of the hydrogen ion concentration in a
solution.

pH=− log¿ pH=−log[H+]

  pOH:
pOH is the negative logarithm of the hydroxide ion concentration in a
solution.

pOH=− log [ OH− )pOH=−log[OH−]

 Relation between pH and pOH:

pH+ pOH=14 pH+pOH=14

8. Application of Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE):

One important application of the standard hydrogen electrode is in measuring
the standard electrode potential of different half-cells in electrochemical
reactions. SHE serves as the reference electrode with a potential of 0 V, and it is
used to determine the potential of other electrodes.

Example: SHE is used to determine the electrode potential of zinc in a zinc-copper

cell.

9. First Law of Thermodynamics and Its Limitation:

 First Law of Thermodynamics:
The first law, also known as the law of energy conservation, states that
energy cannot be created or destroyed, only converted from one form to
another. The change in internal energy ( Δ U ΔU) of a system is equal to the
heat added to the system (Q Q) minus the work done by the system (W W):

Δ U =Q −W ΔU=Q−W

 Limitation:
The first law does not provide any information about the direction of energy
changes or the feasibility of a process (it only tells us that energy is
conserved).

10. Intensive and Extensive Properties:

 Intensive Property:
An intensive property is a physical property that does not depend on the
amount of substance in the system.

o Example: Temperature, pressure, density.

  Extensive Property:
An extensive property is a physical property that depends on the amount of
substance in the system.

o Example: Mass, volume, energy.

11. Enthalpy of Combustion and Enthalpy of Formation:

 Enthalpy of Combustion:
The enthalpy of combustion is the heat released when one mole of a
substance undergoes complete combustion with oxygen under standard
conditions.

 Enthalpy of Formation:
The enthalpy of formation is the heat change when one mole of a
compound is formed from its elements in their standard states.

12. Energy Profile Diagrams (Exothermic and Endothermic

Reactions):
 Exothermic Reaction:
In an exothermic reaction, energy is released, and the products are lower in
energy than the reactants. The energy profile diagram shows a downward
curve.

 Endothermic Reaction:
In an endothermic reaction, energy is absorbed, and the products are
higher in energy than the reactants. The energy profile diagram shows an
upward curve.

13. Energy Profile Diagram for Catalyzed and Uncatalyzed

Reactions:
 Uncatalyzed Reaction:
In an uncatalyzed reaction, the activation energy is high, and the reaction
proceeds slowly.

 Catalyzed Reaction:
A catalyst lowers the activation energy, speeding up the reaction. The
energy profile diagram for a catalyzed reaction shows a lower peak than the
uncatalyzed one.
14. Second Law of Thermodynamics:
The second law states that the entropy of an isolated system always increases over
time. In simple terms, natural processes tend to increase the disorder (entropy) of
a system.

 Entropy Change:
If the entropy change ( Δ S ΔS) is positive, the process is spontaneous; if
negative, it is non-spontaneous.

15. Effective Collision and Essential Conditions:

 Effective Collision:
An effective collision is a collision between reactant molecules that results in
the formation of products.

 Essential Conditions for Effective Collision:

o The molecules must collide with sufficient energy (activation energy).

o The molecules must collide with the correct orientation.

16. Unit of Rate Constant (for Different Orders of Reaction):

 Zero Order:
Unit of rate constant k k is mol L⁻¹ s⁻¹.

 First Order:
Unit of rate constant k k is s⁻¹.

 Second Order:
Unit of rate constant k k is L mol⁻¹ s⁻¹.

 Third Order:
Unit of rate constant k k is L² mol⁻² s⁻¹.

Inorganic

Characteristics of Transition Metals:

1. Variable Oxidation States:

o Transition metals exhibit multiple oxidation states due to the

relatively small energy difference between their 3d and 4s orbitals.
This allows them to lose different numbers of electrons and form
compounds with varying oxidation states.
 o Example: Iron (Fe) can have oxidation states of +2 (Fe²⁺) and +3 (Fe³⁺),
while manganese (Mn) can have oxidation states ranging from +2 to
+7.

2. Formation of Complexes:

o Transition metals have a high tendency to form complexes due to the

availability of vacant d-orbitals, which can accept electron pairs from
ligands (atoms, ions, or molecules that donate electron pairs).

o They form coordination compounds where the metal atom or ion is

surrounded by ligands. The metal-ligand bonds are coordinate
covalent bonds.
4−
o Example: [ F e ( C N )6 ) [Fe(CN)6]4− (hexacyanoferrate(II)) is a complex
formed by the coordination of cyanide ions with Fe²⁺.

3. Reason for Coloured Complexes:

o The color of transition metal complexes arises due to the absorption

of light in the visible region. This happens when electrons in the d-
orbitals of the metal ion are excited from lower to higher energy
levels (d-d transitions).

o The energy difference between these d-orbitals corresponds to the

energy of visible light, which is absorbed, and the complementary
color is observed.
2+¿¿
o Example: [ C u ( H 2 O )6 ) [Cu(H2O)6]2+ gives a blue color due to the d-d
transition in the Cu²⁺ ion.

4. Catalytic Property:

o Transition metals and their compounds act as catalysts in many

chemical reactions. Their catalytic properties arise from their ability to
adopt multiple oxidation states, which allows them to facilitate redox
reactions.

o They can provide an alternative reaction pathway with a lower

activation energy, increasing the reaction rate.
 o Example: Iron (Fe) is used as a catalyst in the Haber process for the
synthesis of ammonia, and platinum (Pt) is used in catalytic
converters in cars to reduce harmful emissions.

5. Magnetic Property:

o Transition metals can exhibit different magnetic properties,

depending on the number of unpaired electrons in their d-orbitals.

o Paramagnetism occurs when there are unpaired electrons, and the

substance is attracted to a magnetic field.

o Diamagnetism occurs when all electrons are paired, and the

substance is weakly repelled by a magnetic field.

o Example: Mn²⁺ is paramagnetic because it has unpaired electrons in

its 3d orbitals, whereas Zn²⁺ is diamagnetic because it has all paired
electrons.

6. Crystal Field Theory (CFT) for Octahedral Complex:

o Crystal Field Theory (CFT) explains the bonding in transition metal

complexes by considering the interaction between the metal ion and
the ligands, which causes the splitting of degenerate d-orbitals into
different energy levels.

o For an octahedral complex, the five degenerate d-orbitals of the

metal ion split into two sets of orbitals:

 e g eg set (higher energy): The d z dz2 and d x − y dx2−y2 orbitals.

2 2 2

 t 2 gt2g set (lower energy): The d x ydxy, d x zdxz, and d y zdyz orbitals.

o The magnitude of the splitting, known as Δ₀ (octahedral crystal field

splitting energy), depends on the metal ion and the ligands
surrounding it.

o The distribution of electrons between the t 2 gt2g and e g eg orbitals

determines the complex’s electronic configuration, its magnetic
properties, and its color.

 In weak field ligands, like C l −Cl− or I −I−, the splitting is smaller, and
electrons tend to occupy both t 2 gt2g and e g eg orbitals, leading to a higher
number of unpaired electrons and a paramagnetic nature.
  In strong field ligands, like C N −CN− or N H 3NH3, the splitting is large, and
electrons tend to pair up in the t 2 gt2g orbitals, leading to a low-spin state
and fewer unpaired electrons, often making the complex less
paramagnetic or diamagnetic.

1. Blister Copper from Copper Pyrites (CuFeS₂):

 Copper pyrites (CuFeS₂) is an important ore of copper.

 The extraction process involves smelting followed by blistering.

Steps:

 Concentration: The copper pyrites are first concentrated by froth flotation.

 Roasting: The concentrated ore is heated in the presence of oxygen (air) to

convert the iron and sulfur into iron oxide (Fe₂O₃) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂).

2C u F e S2 +3 O2 → 2 C u S +2 F e O+2 S O2 )2CuFeS2+3O2→2CuS+2FeO+2SO2

 Smelting: The resulting copper sulfide (CuS) is then melted in a furnace to

produce molten copper and iron silicate slag.

2C u S +O2 → 2C u+S O2) 2CuS+O2→2Cu+SO2

 Blistering: The molten copper is then heated in the presence of oxygen to

oxidize any remaining sulfur, leaving behind blister copper, which is about
98% pure.

C u2 S +O2 → 2 C u+ S O2 )Cu2S+O2→2Cu+SO2

 The final product is blister copper, which is further refined to obtain pure
copper.

2. Steel from Iron Ore (Mainly Open Hearth Process):

 The open hearth process is an old method for producing steel by refining
pig iron.

Steps:

 Pig iron (produced by the blast furnace) contains a lot of impurities, mainly
carbon.
  In the open hearth furnace, pig iron is melted along with scrap iron and
steel. The furnace is lined with a basic material like limestone to remove
impurities.

 Oxidation occurs, and the carbon in the pig iron reacts with oxygen to form
carbon dioxide (CO₂), which escapes, reducing the carbon content.

 Additional elements, such as manganese and silicon, are added to adjust

the properties of the steel.

 The result is steel, with lower carbon content, suitable for various industrial
uses.

3. Iron from Iron Pyrites (FeS₂):

 Iron pyrites (FeS₂) is not directly used for the extraction of iron. It is
primarily an iron ore from which sulfur and iron are obtained. The extraction
is more commonly done from haematite (Fe₂O₃) or magnetite (Fe₃O₄) ores
using the blast furnace.

 However, if we were to use iron pyrites, the process would involve roasting
the ore to obtain iron oxide and sulfur dioxide.

Steps:

 Roasting: Iron pyrites (FeS₂) is roasted to form iron oxide and sulfur dioxide.

2 F e S2 +3 O2 → 2 F e O+2 S O2 )2FeS2+3O2→2FeO+2SO2

 Reduction: The iron oxide (FeO) formed in the roasting process can be
reduced to iron using a reducing agent, usually carbon (in the form of coke).

F e O+C → F e+C O )FeO+C→Fe+CO

 The product is iron, and sulfur dioxide (SO₂) is produced as a by-product,

which can be used to make sulfuric acid.

4. Zinc from Zinc Blende (ZnS):

 Zinc blende (ZnS), or sphalerite, is the most important ore of zinc.

Steps:

 Concentration: The ore is first concentrated using froth flotation.

  Roasting: The concentrated zinc blende is heated in the presence of oxygen
to form zinc oxide (ZnO) and sulfur dioxide (SO₂).

2 Z n S+ 3O 2 → 2 Z n O+2 S O2 )2ZnS+3O2→2ZnO+2SO2

 Reduction: Zinc oxide is then reduced by carbon or carbon monoxide at

high temperatures to produce zinc metal.

Z n O+C → Z n+C O ) ZnO+C→Zn+CO

 The product is zinc metal, which is further purified if necessary.

5. Mercury from Cinnabar (HgS):

 Cinnabar (HgS) is the most common ore of mercury.

Steps:

 Roasting: Cinnabar is heated in the presence of oxygen to convert it into

mercury and sulfur dioxide.

H g S+O2 → H g+ S O2 )HgS+O2→Hg+SO2

 The mercury vapor is then condensed into liquid mercury by cooling.

o This process takes place at relatively low temperatures since mercury

is liquid at room temperature.

 The product is liquid mercury (Hg), which is highly valuable for various
industrial processes.

1. Blue Vitriol (CuSO₄·5H₂O - Copper Sulfate Pentahydrate)

Physical Properties:

 Blue, crystalline solid.

 Soluble in water.

 Has a characteristic blue color due to hydration.

Chemical Properties:

 Dehydration: On heating, it loses water molecules to form anhydrous

copper sulfate (CuSO₄).
heat
C u S O4 ⋅5 H 2 O → C u S O4 +5 H 2 OCuSO4⋅5H2OheatCuSO4+5H2O
  Reaction with bases: Reacts with alkalis (such as sodium hydroxide) to form
copper(II) hydroxide, a pale blue precipitate.

C u S O4 +2 N a O H →C u ( O H )2 + N a2 S O4 )CuSO4+2NaOH→Cu(OH)2+Na2SO4

 Formation of complexes: When reacted with ammonia, it forms the

complex ion [Cu(NH₃)₄]²⁺, which is a deep blue color.

Uses:

 Used as a fungicide and pesticide.

 In electroplating and galvanization processes.

 In the preparation of copper salts and as a laboratory reagent.

2. White Vitriol (ZnSO₄·7H₂O - Zinc Sulfate Heptahydrate)

Physical Properties:

 White crystalline solid.

 Soluble in water, forming a colorless solution.

 Hygroscopic in nature (absorbs water from the air).

Chemical Properties:

 Dehydration: On heating, it loses water molecules to form anhydrous zinc

sulfate (ZnSO₄).
heat
Z n S O4 ⋅7 H 2 O → Z n S O4 + 7 H 2 O ZnSO4⋅7H2OheatZnSO4+7H2O

 Reaction with bases: Zinc sulfate reacts with alkalis to form zinc hydroxide
(Zn(OH)₂), a white precipitate.

Z n S O4 +2 N a O H → Z n (O H )2 + N a2 S O 4 )ZnSO4+2NaOH→Zn(OH)2+Na2SO4

 Reaction with acids: Reacts with acids to form zinc salts and release
hydrogen gas.

Z n S O4 +2 H C l→ Z n C l 2+ H 2 S O4 ) ZnSO4+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2SO4

Uses:
  Used in the production of zinc metal.

 Used in agriculture as a micronutrient in fertilizers.

 In the treatment of skin conditions such as acne (as zinc sulfate).

 Used in making zinc-based batteries.

3. Zinc White (ZnO - Zinc Oxide)

Physical Properties:

 White, odorless powder.

 Insoluble in water.

 It exhibits some degree of fluorescence in ultraviolet light.

Chemical Properties:

 Reaction with acids: Reacts with acids to form zinc salts and water.

Z n O+2 H C l → Z n C l 2+ H 2 O )ZnO+2HCl→ZnCl2+H2O

 Basic nature: Zinc oxide is amphoteric, meaning it can react with both acids
and bases. With a base, it forms a complex salt.

Z n O+2 N aO H → N a 2 [ Z n ( O H )4 ) ) ZnO+2NaOH→Na2[Zn(OH)4]

 Reaction with alkalis: Reacts with alkalis to form zincate salts.

Uses:

 Used in the manufacture of rubber and plastics (as an additive).

 In cosmetics, especially sunscreens, due to its UV-blocking properties.

 In the production of paints (often referred to as zinc white).

 In the preparation of pharmaceutical products for skin care.

4. Calomel (Hg₂Cl₂ - Mercurous Chloride)

Physical Properties:
  White or slightly grayish-white crystalline solid.

 Insoluble in water.

 Has a characteristic metallic luster due to the mercury content.

Chemical Properties:

 Decomposition: Calomel decomposes on heating to form mercury (Hg) and

chlorine gas.
heat
H g 2 C l 2 → 2 H g+ C l 2Hg2Cl2heat2Hg+Cl2

 Reaction with acids: It reacts with acids to give mercurous salts and
chlorine.

H g 2 C l 2 +2 H C l→ H g C l 2 + H g + H 2 O ) Hg2Cl2+2HCl→HgCl2+Hg+H2O

Uses:

 Historically used in medicine (as a purgative or laxative) and in ointments for

treating skin diseases.

 Used in electrical components, such as batteries.

 In the preparation of mercurous compounds.

5. Corrosive Sublimate (HgCl₂ - Mercuric Chloride)

Physical Properties:

 White crystalline solid.

 Highly soluble in water, forming a colorless solution.

 Toxic and corrosive, hence the name "corrosive sublimate."

Chemical Properties:

 Reaction with bases: Reacts with alkalis to form mercuric hydroxide, which
decomposes to form mercury and water upon heating.

H g C l 2 +2 N a O H → H g ( O H )2+ 2 N a C l )HgCl2+2NaOH→Hg(OH)2+2NaCl

 Formation of complexes: It forms soluble complexes with various ligands,

such as amines.
Uses:

 Used as a disinfectant and antiseptic (although its use is now limited due to
toxicity).

 Historically used as a preservative for animal specimens and in the

preparation of mercuric salts.

 In the synthesis of other mercury compounds.

4o mini