CONCRETE TECHNOLOGY

The classes of concrete will generally be used as follows:

CLASS USE
All superstructures and heavily reinforced substructures. The important parts of the
structure included are slabs, beams, girders, columns, arch ribs, box culverts,
A reinforced abutments, retaining walls and reinforced footings.
Footings, pedestals, massive pier shafts, pipe bedding, and gravity walls, unreinforced
B or with only a small amount of reinforcement
Thin reinforced sections, railings, precast R.C piles and cribbing and for filler in steel
C grid floors.
P Prestressed concrete structures and members
SEAL Concrete deposited in water

Material Requirements
1. Portland Cement
Only Type I Portland Cement shall be used unless otherwise provided for in the Special Provisions
Different brands or the same brands from different mills shall not be mixed nor shall they be used alternately unless
the mix is approved by the Engineer.
It shall conform to the applicable requirements of Item 700 Hydraulic Cement
The use of Portland Pozzolan Cement Type 1P meeting the requirements of AASHTO M 240 / ASTM C 695,
Specifications for Blended Hydraulic Cement shall be allowed, provided that the trial mixes shall be done and that the
mixes meet the concrete strength requirements, the AASHTO / ASTM provisions pertinent to the use of Portland
Pozzolan Type IP shall be adopted.
Cement which for any reason has become partially set or which contains lumps of caked cement will be rejected.
Cement salvaged from discarded or used bags shall not bu used.
Samples of cement shall be obtained in accordance with AASHTO T 127.

2. Fine Aggregate
It shall consist of natural sand stone screenings or other inert materials with similar characteristics, or combinations
thereof, having hard, strong and durable particles.
Fine aggregate from different sources of supply shall not be mixed or stored in the same pile nor use alternately
in the same class of concrete without the approval of the Engineer
It shall not contain more than 3 mass percent of material passing the 0.075mm (No. 200 sieve) by washing nor more
than 1 mass percent each clay lumps or shale.
The use of beach sand will not be allowed without the approval of the Engineer.
When subjected to 5 cycles of the sodium sulfate soundness test, the weighted loss (weighted mean loss), shall not
exceed 10 mass percent
If subjected to the calorimetric test for organic impurities and a color darker than the standard is produced, it shall be
rejected
When tested for the effect of organic impurities of strength of mortar by AASHTO T 71, the fine aggregate may be used
if the relative strength at 7 and 28 days is not less than 95 mass percent
The fine aggregate shall be well graded from course to fine and shall conform to Table 311.1 (Grading Requirements
for Fine Aggregates)

GRADING REQUIREMENTS FOR FINE AGGREGATES

Sieve Designation Mass Percent Passing
9.5mm (3/8 in) 100
4.75mm (No. 4) 95-100
2.36mm (No. 8)
1.18mm (No. 16) 45-80
0.600mm (No. 30)
0.300mm (No. 50) 5-30
0.150mm (No. 100) 0-10

3. Coarse Aggregate
It shall consist of crushed stone, gravel, blast furnace slag, or other approved inert materials of similar characteristics
or combinations thereof, having hard, strong, durable pieces and free from any adherent coatings.
It shall contain not more than 1 mass percent of material passing the 0.075 mm (No. 200 sieve) by washing, not more
than 0.25 mass % of clay lumps, nor more than 3.5 mass % of soft fragments.
If the course aggregate is subjected to five cycles of the sodium sulfate soundness test, the weighted loss shall not
exceed 12 mass percent.
It shall have a mass percent wear not exceeding 40 when tested by AASHTO T 96
If the slag is used, its density shall not be less than 1120 kg per cu.m (70lb per cu.ft)
Only one grading specification shall be used from any one source.
The gradation of the coarse aggregate shall conform to Table 311.2

Grading Requirement for Coarse Aggregate

Standard (mm) Alternate US (in) Grading A Grading B Grading C
75 3 100
 63 2-1/2 90-100 100 100
50 2 90-100 95-100
37.5 1-1/2 25-60 35-70
25 1 0-15 35-70
19 3/4 0-10
12.5 1/2 0-5 0-5 10-30
4.75 No.4 35-65 50-85 55-100

4. Water
Water used in mixing, curing or other designated application shall be reasonably clean and free of oil, salt, acid, alkali,
grass or other substances injurious to the finished product.
Water shall meet the requirements of Item 714, water
Water which is drinkable may be used without test
Where the source of water is shallow, the intake shall be so enlosed as to exclude silt, mud, grass, or other foreign
materials.

5. Reinforcing Steel
It shall conform to the requirements of item 404, reinforcing steel.
Dowels and tie bars shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 31 or M 42, except that rail steel shall not be
used for tie bars that are to be bent and restraightened during construction.
Tie bars shall be deformed bars.
Dowels shall be plain round bars.
Before delivery to the site of work, 1/2 of 1 length of each dowel shall be painted with one coat of approved lead or tar
paint.
The sleeves for dowel bars shall be metal of approved design to cover 50mm (2 inches), +/-5mm (1/4 inch) of the dowel
with a close end, and with a suitable stop to hold the end of the sleeve at least 25mm (1in) from the end of the dowel.
Sleeves shall be of such design that they do not collapse during construction.

6. Joint Fillers
Poured joint fillers shall be made mixed asphalt and mineral or rubber filler conforming to the applicable requirements
of item 705, Joint Materials.
Preforemed joint filler shall conform to the applicable requirements of item 705.
The filler for each joint shall be furnished in a single piece for the full depth and width required for the joint.

7. Admixtures
Air entraining admixture shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 154
Chemical admixtures, if specified or permitted, shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 194.
Fly ash, if specified or permitted as a mineral admixture and as 20% partial replacement of portland cement in concrete
mix shall conform to the requirements of ASTM C 618.

8. Calcium Chloride/Calcium Nitrate

It shall conform to AASHTO M 144, if specified or permitted by the Engineer, as accelerator.

9. Curing Materials
Burlap Cloth AASHTO M 182
Liquid membrane forming compounds AASHTO M 148
Sheeting (film) materials AASHTO M 171
Cotton mats and water proof paper can be used

Storage of Cement and Aggregate

All cement shall be stored, immediately upon delivery at the site, in weatherproof building which will protect the cement
from dampness.
The floor shall be raised from the ground.
Storage buildings shall have capacity for storage of a sufficient quantity of cement to allow sampling at least 12 days
before the cement is used.
The handling and storing of concrete aggregates shall be such as to prevent segregation or the inclusion of foreign
materials.
Different sizes of aggregate shall be stored in separate bins or in separate stockpiles sufficiently removed from each
other to prevent the material at the edges of the piles from becoming intermixed.

Proportioning, Consistency and Strength of Concrete

The contractor shall prepare the design mix based on the absolute volume method as outlined in the American
Concrete Institute (ACI) Standard 211.1, Recommended Practice for Selecting Proportions for Normal and Heavy-
weight concrete.
It is the intent of this specification to require at least 364 kg of cement per cu.m of concrete to meet the minimum
strength requirements.
Cement content and the proportions of aggregate and water that will produce workable concrete having a slump
of between 40 and 75mm (1-1/2 and 3in), if not vibrated or between 10 and 40mm (1/2 and 1-1/2 inches ) if vibrated.
Flexural strength of not less than 3.8MPa (550psi) when tested by third point method or 4.5MPa (650psi) when
tested by midpoint method at 14days in accordance with AASTHO T 97 and T 177.
Compressive strength of 24.1MPa (3500psi) for cores taken at 14 days and tested in accordance with AASHTO
T 24.
 The designer shall consider the use of lean concrete (econocrete) mixture using local materials or specifically
modified conventional concrete mixes in base course and in lower course composite, monolithic concrete
pavements using a minimum of 75mm (3in) of conventional concrete as the surface course.

CONSTRUCTION REQUIREMENTS

1. Quality Control of Concrete

Contractor shall furnish the Engineer a Quality Control Plan detailing his production control procedures and the
type and frequency of sampling and testing to ensure that the concrete produces complies with the specifications.
Engineer shall be provided free access to recent plant production records, and if requested, informational copies
of mix design, materials certifications and sampling and testing reports.
Quality Control Testing: The contractor shall perform all sampling, testing and inspection necessary to assure
quality control of the component materials and concrete.
The contractor shall be responsible for determining the gradation of fine and coarse aggregate and for testing the
concrete mixture for slump, air content, water - cement ratio and temperature.

2. Equipment
a. Batching Plant and Equipment
Bins and hoppers: Bins with adequate separate compartments for fine aggregate and for each size of coarse
aggregate shall be provided in the batching plant.
Scales: Scales for weighing aggregates and cement shall be either the beam type or the springless - dial type.
They shall be accurate within 0.5% throughout the range of use.

b. Mixers
Concrete may be mixed at the site of construction or at a central plant, or wholly or in part in truck mixers.
Mixers at site of construction: in case of failure of the timing device, the mixer may be used foe the balance of the
day while it is being reapired, provided that each batch is mixed in 90 seconds.
Truck mixer and truck agitators: Truck mixers used for mixing and hauling concrete, and truck agitators used for
hauling central mixed concrete, shall conform to the requirements of AASHTO M 157.
Non Agitator Truck: Bodies of non agitating hauling equipment for concrete shall be smooth, mortar tight metal
containers.

c. Paving and Finishing Equipment

The finishing machine shall be equipped with at least 2 oscillating type transverese screed.
Vibrators shall operate at a frequency of 8,300 to 9,600 impluses per minute under load at a maximum spacing
of 60cm.

d. Concrete Saw
The contractor shall provide sawing equipment in adequate number of units and power to complete the sawing
with a water cooled diamind edge saw blade or an abrasive wheel to the required dimensions and at the required
rate.
He shall provide at least 1 stand by saw in good working condition and with an ample supply of saw blades.

e. Forms
Forms shall be of steel, of an approved section, and of depth equal to the thickness of the pavement at the edge.
The flange braces must extend outward on the base to not less than 2/3 the height of the form
All forms shall be rigidly supported on bed of thoroughly compacted material during the entire operation of
placing and finishing the concrete.
3. Preparation of grade
After the subgrade of base has been placed and compacted to the required density, the areas which will support
the paving machine and the grade on which the pavement is to be constructed shall be trimmed to the proper
elevation by means of a properly designed machine extending to the prepared work areas compacted at least
60cm beyond each of the proposed concrete pavement.

4. Setting Forms
Base Support: Any roadbed, which at the form line is found below established grade, shall be filled with approved granular materials to
grade in lifts of 3 cm or less, and thoroughly rerolled or tamped.
Form Setting: The forms shall not deviate from true line by more than 1 cm at any point.
Grade and Alignment: The alignment and grade elevations of the forms shall be checked and corrections made by the Contractor
immediately before placing the concrete.

5. Conditioning of Subgrade or Base Course

When side forms have been securely set to grade, the subgrade or base course shall be brought to proper cross-section.

Unless waterproof subgrade or base course cover material is specified, the subgrade or base course shall be uniformly moist when
the concrete is placed.

6. Handling, Measuring and Batching Materials

Stockpiles shall be built up in layers of not more than 1 meter in thickness
Each layer shall be completely in place before beginning the next which shall not be allowed to "cone" down over the next lower layer.

All washed aggregates and aggregates produced or handled by hydraulic methods, shall be stockpiled or binned for draining at least
12 hours before being batched
 All washed aggregates and aggregates produced or handled by hydraulic methods, shall be stockpiled or binned for draining at least
12 hours before being batched
When cement is placed in contact with the aggregates, batches may be rejected unless mixed within 1-1/2 hours of such contact.

The mixer shall be charged without loss of cement.

Batching shall be so conducted as to result in the weight to each material required within a tolerance of 1% for the cement and 2% for
aggregates.
Water may be measured either by volume or by weight.
The accuracy of measuring the water shall be within a range of error of not over than 1%.

7. Mixing Concrete
a. The concrete may be mixed at the site of the work in a centralmix plant, or in truck mixers.
b. Ready mixed concrete shall be mixed and delivered in accordance with requirements of AASHTO M 157, except that
the minimum required revolutions at the mixing speed for transit mixed concrete may be reduced to not less than
that recommended by the transit mixer manufacturer.
c. When mixed at the site or in a central mixing plant, the mixing time shall not be less than 50 seconds nor more than 90
seconds, unless mixer performance test prove adequate mixing of the concrete in shorter time period.
d. Four seconds shall be added to the specified mixing time if timing starts at the instant the skip reaches its maximum
raised positions.
e. The batches shall be so charged into the drum that a portion of the mixing water shall be entered in advance of the
cement and aggregates.
f. The flow of water shall be uniform and all water shall be in the drum by the end of the first fifteen seconds of the
mixing period.
g. The time elapsed from the time water is added to the mix until the concrete is deposited in place at the Site shall not exceed forty five
(45) minutes when the concrete is hauled in non-agitating trucks, nor ninety (90) minutes when hauled in truck mixers or truck
agitators, except that in hot weather or under other conditions contributing to quick hardening of the concrete, the maximum allowable
time may be reduced by the Engineer.
h. In exceptional cases and when volumetric measurements are authorized for small project requiring less than 75 cu.m. of concrete per
day of pouring, the weight proportions shall be converted to equivalent volumetric proportions. Retempering concrete by adding water
i. or by other means shall not be permitted, except that when concrete is delivered in truck mixers, additional water may be added to the
batch materials and additional mixing performed to, increase the slump to meet the specified requirements, if permitted by the
Engineer, provided all these operations are performed within forty-five (45) minutes after the initial mixing operation and the water-
cement ratio is not exceeded.

8. Limitation of Mixing
a. During hot weather, the Engineer shall require that steps be taken to prevent the temperature of mixed concrete from exceeding a
maximum temperature of 90 °F (32 °C),
b. Concrete not in place within ninety (90) minutes from the time the ingredients were charged into the mixing drum or that has developed
initial set shall not be used.
c. Retempering of concrete or mortar which has partially hardened, that is remixing with or without additional cement, aggregate, or
water, shall not be permitted.

9. Placing Concrete
a. When concrete is to be placed adjoining a previously constructed lane and mechanical equipment will be operated upon the existing
lane, that previously constructed lane shall have attained the strength for fourteen (14) day concrete.

b. If only finishing equipment is carried on the existing lane, paving in adjoining lanes may be permitted after three (3) days.

c. Vibrators shall not be permitted to come in contact with a joint assembly, the grade, or a side form. In no case shall the vibrator be
operated longer than fifteen (15) seconds in any one location.
d. Concrete shall be deposited as near as possible to the expansion and contraction joints without disturbing them, but shall not be
dumped from the discharge bucket or hopper into a joint assembly unless the hopper is well centered on the joint assembly.

10. Placing of Reinforcement

a. When reinforced concrete pavement is placed in two (2) layers, the bottom layer shall be struck off and consolidated to such length
and depth that the sheet of fabric or bar mat may be laid full length on the concrete in its final position without further manipulation.

b. The reinforcement shall then be placed directly upon the concrete, after which the top layer of the concrete shall be placed, struck off
and screeded.
c. Any portion of the bottom layer of concrete which has been placed more than 30 minutes without being covered with the top layer shall
be removed and replaced with freshly mixed concrete at the Contractor's expense.

11. Joints
a. Longitudinal Joint
aa. Deformed steel tie bars of specified length, size, spacing and materials shall be placed perpendicular to the longitudinal joints, they
shall be placed by approved mechanical equipment or rigidly secured by chair or other approved supports to prevent displacement.

ab. Tie bars shall not be painted or coated with asphalt or other materials or enclosed in tubes or sleeves.
ac. Longitudinal formed joints shall consist of a groove or cleft, extending downward from and normal to, the surface of the pavement.

ad. The longitudinal joints shall be continuous, there shall be no gaps in either transverse or longitudinal joints at the intersection of the
joints.
 ae. The longitudinal joint shall be sawed before the end of the curing period or shortly thereafter and before any equipment or vehicles are
allowed on the pavement.
af. The sawed area shall be thoroughly cleaned and, if required, the joint shall immediately be filled with sealer.

b. Transverse Expansion Joint

ba. The expansion joint filler shall be continuous from form to form, shaped to subgrade and to the keyway along the form.
bb. Preformed joint filler shall be furnished in lengths equal to the pavement width or equal to the width of one lane.
bc. The expansion joint filler shall be held in a vertical position.
bd. Finished joint shall not deviate more than 6 mm from a straight line.
be. If joint fillers are assembled in sections, there shall be no offsets between adjacent units.
bf. No plugs of concrete shall be permitted anywhere within the expansion space.

c. Transverse Contraction Joint/Weakened Joint

ca. It shall consist of planes of weakness created by forming or cutting grooves in the surface of the pavement and shall include load
transfer assemblies.
cb. The depth of the weakened plane joint should at all times not be less than 50 mm, while the width should not be more than 6 mm.

1. Transverse Strip Contraction Joint: It shall be formed by installing a parting strip to be left in place.
2. Formed Groove: It shall be made by depressing an approved tool or device into the plastic concrete. The tool or device shall remain
in place at least until the concrete has attained its initial set and shall then be removed without disturbing the adjacent concrete, unless
the device is designed to remain in the joint.
3. Sawed Contraction Joint: It shall be created by sawing grooves in the surface of the pavement of the width not more than 6 mm,
depth should at all times not be less than 50 mm, and at the spacing and lines shown on the Plans, with an approved concrete saw.

о Sawing of the joint shall commence as soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently to permit sawing without excessive ravelling,
usually 4 to 24 hours.
о All joints shall be sawed before uncontrolled shrinkage cracking takes place.
о If necessary, the sawing operations shall be carried on during the day or night, regardless of weather conditions.
о The sawing of any joint shall be omitted if crack occurs at or near the joint location prior to the time of sawing.
о Sawing shall be discounted when a crack develops ahead of the saw.
о In general, all joints should be sawed in sequence.
о If xtreme condition exist which make it impractical to prevent erratic cracking by early sawing, the contraction joint groove shall be
formed prior to initial set of concrete as provided above.

d. Transverse Construction Joint

da. It shall be constructed when there is an interruption of more than 30 minutes in the concreting operations. No transverse joint shall be
constructed within 1.50 m of an expansion joint, contraction joint, or plane of weakness.
db. If sufficient concrete has been mixed at the time of interruption to form a slab of at least 1.5 m long, the excess concrete from the last
preceding joint shall be removed and disposed off as directed.

e. Load Transfer Device

ea. Dowel, when used, shall be held in position parallel to the surface and center line of the slab by a metal device that is left in the
pavement.
eb. The portion of each dowel painted with one coat of lead or tar, in conformance with the requirements of Item 404, Reinforcing Steel,
ec. shall be thoroughly coated with approved bituminous materials, e.g., MC-70, or an approved lubricant, to prevent the concrete from
ed. binding to that
The sleeves forportion
dowelsofshall
the dowel:
be metal designed to cover 50 mm plus or minus 5 mm (1/4 inch), of the dowel, with a watertight closed
end and with a suitable stop to hold the end of the sleeves at least 25 mm (1 inch) from the end of the dowel.

ee. In lieu of using dowel assemblies at contraction joints, dowel may be placed in the full thickness of pavement by a mechanical device
approved by the Engineer.

12. Final Strike-off (Consolidation and Finishing)

a. Sequence
о The sequence of operations shall be the strike-off and consolidation, floating and removal of laitance, straight edging and final
surface finish.
о In general, the addition of water to the surface of the concrete to assist in finishing operations will not be permitted.
о If the application of water to the surface is permitted, it shall be applied as fog spray by means of an approved spray equipment.

b. Finishing Joints
о The concrete adjacent to joints shall be compacted or firmly placed without voids or segregation against the joint material assembly,
also under and around all load transfer devices, joint assembly units, and other features designed to extend into the pavement.
о Concrete adjacent to joints shall be mechanically vibrated as required in Subsection 311.3.9, Placing Concrete. If uninterrupted
operation of the finishing machine, to over and beyond the joints causes segregation of concrete, damage to, or misalignment of the
joints, the finishing machine shall be stopped when the front screed is approximately 20 cm (8 inches) from the joint.

о Segregated concrete shall be removed from in front of and off the joint.

c. Machine Finishing
1. Non-vibratory Method
о The machine shall go over each area of pavement as many times and at such intervals as necessary to give the proper compaction
and leave a surface of uniform texture.
о During the first pass of the finishing machine, a uniform ridge of concrete shall be maintained ahead of the front screed in its entire
length.

2. Vibratory Method
о When vibration is specified, vibrators for full width vibration of concrete paving slabs, shall meet the requirements in Subsection
311.3.2, Equipment.
о If uniform and satisfactory density of the concrete is not obtained by the vibratory method at joints, along forms, at structures, and
throughout the pavement, the Contractor will be required to furnish equipment and a method which will produce pavement conforming
to the Specifications.

d. Hand Finishing
Hand finishing methods may only be used under the following conditions:

1. In the event of breakdown of the mechanical equipment, hand methods may be used to finish the concrete already deposited on the
grade..
2. In narrow widths or areas of irregular dimensions where operations of the mechanical equipment are impractical, hand methods
may be used.
о Concrete, as soon as placed, shall be struck off and screeded.
о An approved portable screed shall be used.
о A second screed shall be provided for striking off the bottom layer of concrete if reinforcement is used.
о The screed for the surface shall be at least 60 cm (2 feet) longer than the maximum width of the slab to be struck off.

о Consolidation shall be attained by the use of suitable vibrator or other approved equipment.
о In operation, the screed shall be moved forward on the forms with a combined longitudinal and transverse shearing motion, moving
always in the direction in which the work is progressing and so manipulated that neither end is raised from the side forms during the
striking off process.

e. Floating
After the concrete has been struck off and consolidated, it shall be further smoothed, trued, and consolidated by means of a
longitudinal float, either by hand or mechanical method.

1. Hand Method: The hand-operated longitudinal float shall be not less than 365 cm (12 feet) in length and 15 cm (6 inches) in width,
properly stiffened to prevent flexibility and warping.
2. Mechanical Method: The float shall pass over each areas of pavement at least two times, but excessive operation over a given
area will not be permitted.
3. Alternative Mechanical Method: As an alternative, the Contractor may use a machine composed of a cutting and smoothing float
or floats suspended from and guided by a rigid frame. Long handled floats having blades not less than 150 cm (5 feet) in length and 15
cm (6 inches) in width may be used to smooth and fill in open-textured areas in the pavement.

f. Straight-edge Testing and Surface Correction

о After the floating has been completed and the excess water removed, but while the concrete is still plastic, the surface of the
concrete shall be tested for trueness with a 300 cm long straight-edge.
о For this purpose, the Contractor shall furnish and use an accurate 300-cm straight-edge swung from handles 100 cm (3 feet)
longer than one-half the width of the slab.

g. Final Finish
о If the surface texture is broom finished, it shall apply when the water sheen has practically disappeared.
о The broom shall be drawn from the center to the edge of the pavement with adjacent strokes slightly overlapping.
о The brooming operation should be so executed that the corrugations produced in the surface shall be uniform in appearance and
not more than 1.5 mm in depth.
о Brooming shall be completed before the concrete is in such condition that the surface will be unduly roughened by the operation.
The surface thus finished shall be free from rough and porous areas, irregularities, and depressions resulting from improper handling
of the broom..
о If the surface texture is belt finished, when straight-edging is complete and water sheen has practically disappeared and just before
the concrete becomes non-plastic, the surface shall be belted with 2-ply canvass belt not less than 20 cm wide and at least 100 cm
longer than the pavement width.
о If the surface texture is drag finished, a drag shall be used which consists of a seamless strip of damp burlap or cotton fabric,
which shall produce a uniform of gritty texture after dragging it longitudinally along the full width of pavement.

о For pavement 5 m or more in width, the drag shall be mounted on a bridge which travels on the forms.
о The dimensions of the drag shall be such that a strip of burlap or fabric at least 100 cm wide is in contact with the full width of
pavement surface while the drag is used.
The drag shall consist of not less than 2 layers of burlap with the bottom layer approximately 15 cm wider than the layer.
о The drag shall be maintained in such condition that the resultant surface is of uniform appearance and reasonably free from
grooves over 1.5 mm in depth.
о Drag shall be maintained clean and free from 125 encrusted mortar.
о Regardless of the method used for final finish, the hardened surface of pavement shall have a coefficient of friction of 0.25 or
more.
о Completed pavement that is found to have a coefficient of friction less than 0.25 shall be grounded or scored by the Contractor at
his expense to provide the required coefficient of friction.
 о Completed pavement that is found to have a coefficient of friction less than 0.25 shall be grounded or scored by the Contractor at
his expense to provide the required coefficient of friction.

h. Edging at Forms and Joints

о After the final finish, but before the concrete has taken its initial set, the edges of the pavement along each side of each slab, and
on each, side of transverse expansion joints, formed joints, transverse construction joints, and emergency construction joints, shall be
worked with an approved tool and rounded to the radius required by the Plans.

о At all joints, any tool marks appearing on the slab adjacent to the joints shall be eliminated by brooming the surface.
о In doing this, the rounding of the corner of the slab shall not be disturbed.
о All joints shall be tested with a straight-edge before the concrete has set and correction made if one edge of the joint is higher than
the other.

13. Surface Test

о As soon as the concrete has hardened sufficiently, the pavement surface shall be tested with a 3-m straight-edge or other specified
device.
о Areas showing high spots of more than 3 mm but not exceeding 12 mm in 3 m shall be marked and immediately ground down with
an approved grinding tool to an elevation where the area or spot will not show surface deviations in excess of 3 mm when tested with 3
m straight-edge.
о Any area or section so removed shall be not less than 1.5 m in length and not less than the full width of the lane involved.

о When it is necessary to remove and replace a section of pavement, any remaining portion of the slab adjacent to the joints that is
less than 1.5 m in length, shall also be removed and replaced.

14. Curing
о Failure to provide sufficient cover material of whatever kind the Contractor may elect to use, or the lack of water to adequately take
care of both curing and other requirements, shall be a cause for immediate suspension of concreting operations.

о The concrete shall not be left exposed for more than 2 hour bet during the curing period.

a. Cotton of Burlap Mats

о The surface of the pavement shall be entirely covered with mats.
о The mat shall be so placed and weighted down so as to cause them to remain in intimate contact with the covered surface.

о The mat shall be maintained fully wetted and in position for 72 hours after the concrete has been placed unless otherwise specified.

b. Waterproof Paper ween stages of curing

о The top surface and sides of the pavement shall be entirely covered with waterproof paper, the units shall be lapped at least 45 cm.

о The paper shall have such dimension but each unit as laid will extend beyond the edges of the slab at least twice the thickness of the
pavement, or at pavement width and 60 cm strips of paper for the edges.
о Unless otherwise specified, the covering shall be maintained in place for 72 hours after the concrete has been placed.

о The surface of the pavement shall be thoroughly wetted prior to the placing of the paper.

c. Straw Curing
о When this type of curing is used, the pavement shall be cured initially with burlap or cotton mats, until after final set of the concrete or,
in any case, for 12 hours after placing the concrete.
о As soon as the mats are removed, the surface and sides of the pavement shall be thoroughly wetted and covered with at least 20 cm
of straw or hay, thickness of which is to be measured after wetting.
о If the straw or hay covering becomes displaced during the curing period, it shall be replaced to the original depth and saturated.

о It shall be kept thoroughly saturated with water for 72 hours and thoroughly wetted down during the morning of the fourth day, and the
cover shall remain in place until the concrete has attained the required strength.

d. Impervious Membrane Method

о The entire surface of the pavement shall be sprayed uniformly with white pigmented curing compound immediately after the finishing
of the surface and before the set of the concrete has taken place, or if the pavement is cured initially with jute or cotton mats, it may be
applied upon removal of the mass.
о The curing compound shall not be applied during rain.
о Curing compound shall be applied under pressure at the rate 4 L to not more than 14 m2 by mechanical sprayers,
о The spraying equipment shall be equipped with a wind guard.
о At the time of use; the compound shall be in a thoroughly mixed condition with the pigment uniformly dispersed throughout the vehicle.

о Curing compound shall not be applied to the inside faces of joints to be sealed, but approved means shall be used to insure proper
curing at least 72 hours and to prevent the intrusion of foreign material into the joint before sealing has been completed.

о The curing compound shall be of such character that the film will harden within 30 minutes after application.

e. White Polyethylene Sheet

о The top surface and sides of the pavement shall be entirely covered with polyethylene sheeting.
о The units used shall be lapped at least 45 cm.
 о The sheeting shall be so placed and weighted down so as to cause it to remain intimate contact with the surface covered.

15. Removal of Forms

о After forms for concrete shall remain in place undisturbed for not less than twenty-four (24) hours after concrete pouring.

о In the removal of forms, crowbars should be used in pulling out nails and pins.
о Care should be taken so as not to break the edges of the pavement.
о In case portions of the concrete are spalled, they shall be immediately repaired with fresh mortar mixed in the proportion of one part of
Portland Cement and two parts fine aggregates.
о Major honeycomb areas will be considered as defective work and shall be removed and replaced at the expense of the Contractor.

16. Sealing Joints

о Joints shall be sealed with asphalt sealant soon after completion of the curing period and before the pavement is opened to traffic,
including the Contractor's equipment.
о Just prior to sealing, each joint shall be thoroughly cleaned of all foreign materials including membrane curing compound and the joint
faces shall be clean and surface dry when the seal is applied.
о Preformed elastomeric gaskets for sealing joints shall be of the cross- sectional dimensions shown on the Plans.
о Seals shall be installed by suitable tools, without elongation and secured in placed with an approved lubricant adhesive which shall
cover both sides of the concrete joints.
о The seals shall be installed in a compressive condition and shall at time of placement be below the level of the pavement surface by
approximately 6 mm.
о The seals shall be in one piece for the full width of each transverse joint.

17. Protection of Pavement

о All boreholes after thickness and/or strength determinations of newly constructed asphalt and concrete pavements shall be
immediately filled/restored with the prescribed concrete/asphalt mix after completion of the drilling works.
о Any damage to the pavement, occurring prior to final acceptance, shall be repaired or the pavement be replaced.

18. Concrete Pavement - Slip Form Method

If the Contract calls for the construction of pavement without the use of fixed forms, the following provisions shall apply:

a. Grade
о After the grade or base has been placed and compacted to the required density, the areas which will support the paving machine shall
be cut to the proper elevation by means of a properly designed machine.
о The grade on which the pavement is to be constructed shall then be brought to the proper profile by means of properly designed
machine.

b. Placing Concrete
о The machine shall vibrate the concrete for the full width and depth of the strip of pavement being placed.
о Such vibration shall be accompanied with vibrating tubes or arms working in the concrete or with a vibrating screed or pan operating
on the surface of the concrete.
о Any edge slump of the pavement, exclusive of edge rounding, in excess of 6 mm shall be corrected before the concrete has hardened.

о The concrete shall be held at a uniform consistency, having a slump of not more than 40 mm (1-1/2 inches).

c. Finishing
о The surface smoothness and texture shall meet the requirements of Subsections 311.3.13 and 311.3.14.

d. Curing
о The curing media shall be applied at the appropriate time and shall be applied uniformly and completely to all surfaces and edges of
the pavement.

e. Joints
о All joints shall be constructed in accordance with Subsection 311.3.12.

f. Protection Against Rain

о In order that the concrete may be properly protected against rain before the concrete is sufficiently hardened, the Contractor will be
required to have available at all times, materials for the protection of the edges and surface of the unhardened concrete.

о Such protective materials shall consist of standard metal forms. or wood planks having a nominal thickness of not less than 50 mm (2
inches) and a nominal width of not less than the thickness of the pavement at its edge for the protection of the pavement edges, and
covering material such as burlap or cotton mats, curing paper or plastic sheeting materials for the protection of the surface of the
pavement.

19. Acceptance of Concrete

о The strength level of the concrete will be considered satisfactory if the averages of all sets of three (3) consecutive strength test
results equal or exceed the specified strength, fc' and no individual strength test result is deficient by more than 15% of the specified
strength, fc'.
о Concrete deemed to be not acceptable using the above criteria may be rejected unless the Contractor can provide evidence, by
means of core tests, 'that the quality of concrete represented by failed test results is acceptable in place.
 Concrete deemed to be not acceptable using the above criteria may be rejected unless the Contractor can provide evidence, by
means of core tests, 'that the quality of concrete represented by failed test results is acceptable in place.

о At least three (3) representative cores shall be taken from each member or area of concrete in place that is considered deficient.

о The obtaining and testing of drilled cores shall be in accordance with AASHTO T24.
о Concrete in the area represented by the cores will be considered adequate if the average strength of the cores is equal to at least 85%
of, and if no single core is less than 75% of, the specified strength, fc'.

Deficiency in Strength of Concrete

% of Contract Price Allowed
Specimens, %
less than 5 100
5 to less than 10 80
10 to less than 15 70
15 to less than 20 60
20 to less than 25 50
25 or more 0

20. Opening to Traffic

о The Engineer will decide when the pavement may be opened to traffic.
о The road will not be opened to traffic until test specimens molded and cured in accordance with AASHTO T 23 have attained the
minimum strength requirements in Subsection 311.2.11.
о If such tests are not conducted prior to the specified age the pavement shall not be operated to traffic until 14 days after the concrete
was placed.
о Before opening to traffic, the pavement shall be cleaned and joint sealing completed.

21. Tolerance and Pavement Thickness

a. General
о The thickness of the pavement will be determined by measurement of cores from the completed pavement in accordance with
AASHTO T 148.
о The completed pavement shall be accepted on a lot basis.
о A lot shall be considered as 1000 linear meters of pavement when a single traffic lane is poured or 500 linear meters when two lanes
are poured. concurrently.
о The last unit in each slab constitutes a lot in itself when its length is at least 1/2 of the normal lot length.
о If the length of the last unit is shorter than 1⁄2 of the normal lot length, it shall be included in the previous lot.
о Other areas such as intersections, entrances, crossovers, ramp, etc., will be grouped together to form a lot.
о Small irregular areas may be included with other unit areas to form a lot.
о Each lot will be divided into five (5) equal segments and one core will be obtained from each segment in accordance with AASHTO T
24.

b. Pavement Thickness
о In calculating the average thickness of the pavement, individual measurement which is in excess of the specified thickness by more
than 5 mm will be considered as the specified thickness plus 5 mm and measurement which is less than the specified thickness by
more than 25 mm shall not be included in the average.
о When the average thickness for the lot is deficient, the contract unit price will be adjusted for thickness:
о Individual areas within a segment found deficient in thickness by more than 25 mm shall be evaluated by the Engineer, and if in his
judgment, the deficient areas warrant removal, they shall be removed and replaced by the Contractor with pavement of the specified
о thickness at his entire expense.
о When the measurement of any core is less than the specified thickness by more than 25 mm, the actual thickness of the pavement in
this area will be determined by taking additional cores at no less than 5 m intervals parallel to the center line in each direction from the
affected location until a core is found in each direction, which is not deficient in thickness by more than 25 mm.

о The area of slab for which no payment will be made shall be the product of the paving width multiplied by the distance along the center
line of the road between transverse sections found not deficient in thickness by more than 25 mm.
о The thickness of the remainder of the segment to be used to get the average thickness of each lot shall be determined by taking the
average thickness of additional cores which are not deficient by more than 25 mm.

c. Adjustment for Thickness

When the average thickness of the pavement per lot is deficient, payment for the lot shall be adjusted as follows:

Deficiency in the Average Thickness

% of Contract Price per Lot
per Lot (mm)
6-10 100% payment
11-15 95% payment
16-20 85% payment
21-25 70% payment
more than 25 Remove and replace / no payment

No acceptance and final payment shall be made on completed pavement unless core test for thickness determination is conducted,
except for Barangay Roads where the implementing office is allowed to waive such test.

22. Method of Measurement

о The area to be paid for under this Item shall be the number of square meters (m2) of concrete pavement placed and accepted in the
completed pavement.
 The area to be paid for under this Item shall be the number of square meters (m2) of concrete pavement placed and accepted in the
completed pavement.

TRIVIA:
Concrete is the most widely used construction material.

REASONS WHY CONCRETE IS THE MOST WIDELY USED MATERIAL:

о Concrete possesses excellent resistance to water
о Concrete can be formed into a variety of shapes and sizes
о Concrete is one of the cheapest and most readily available materials

CONCRETE
о A hard compact building material formed when a mixture of cement, sand, gravel, and water undergoes hydration

Major Parts of Concrete

1 Paste.
A. Portland Cement
B. Water
C. Air voids
D. Admixture
2 Aggregates

COMPONENTS OF CONCRETE
о Aggregate
о Cement
о Admixture
о Air Voids

Cem ent Sand (per Gravel Water Strength

Class Uses
(per bag) cu.m ) (per cu.m ) (per gal) (psi)

AAA 1 1 2 6 4500 Pre stresses and post tensioned

Underw ater retaining w all, shear w all

AA 1 1.5 3 6 4000
and core elevator, core w alls
Footings, pier, column, girders, beams,
A 1 2 4 6 3500
joists and slabs
Slabs on fill and non load bearing w all or
B 1 2.5 5 6 3000
4" CHB
C 1 3 6 6 2500 Concrete plant boxes and parapet w alls

Plant boxes, footpaths, w alkw ay and

D 1 3.5 7 6 2000
lean concrete

General Categories of Concrete

General categories of concrete based on compressive strength:

Category Com pressive Strength

Low Strength Concrete < 20 Mpa (<3000 psi)
Moderate Strength Concrete 20 - 40 Mpa (3000 - 6000psi)
High Strength Concrete > 40 Mpa (>6000 psi)

CONCRETE CHARACTERISTICS
о Inherently strong in compression but weak in tension (steel reinforcement is required to handle tensile and shear stresses)

о Capable of being formed into any shape with variety of surface finishes, textures and patterns
о Relatively low-cost and inherently fire-resistant
о Liability is its own weight (150 lbs/cu.ft)
о The provision for forming and molding required before placing for setting and curing

Water-Cement Ratio
о Water cement ratio controls the strength, durability and water tightness of hardened concrete
о Based on Abram's Law (D.A. Abrams, 1919) "the compressive strength of concrete is inversely proportional to the ratio of water to
cement"
о Too much water will weaken concrete after curing
о Little water is dense but causes difficulty in placement and workability of concrete
о The average water cement ratio is gallons per 40kg of cement bag
о Excessive water causes bleeding and laitance

Remember this!
Bleeding-emergence of excess mixing water of the surface of newly placed concrete cause of settlement of solids within the mass

Laitance milky deposit containing cement and fine aggregate on the surface of new concrete combined with bleeding, overworking of
mix of improper finishing
 PROPERTIES OF CONCRETE
о Creep - Long duration stress produces stress over time and consequently causes permanent deformation
о Fire-Resistance - Concrete is incombustible and somewhat insulative, but long exposure to fire can be damaging
о Shrinkage - Ordinary concrete shrinks amount during process, This must be controlled by providing expansion joints and steel
reinforcements
о Hardness - Relative to durability and appearance, accomplished thru troweled or floated finish to draw more paste to the surface

о Porosity Sizes of pores left during hydration process or created by excessive evaporation and shrinkage cracks affecting the water-
tightness of concrete. Apply compaction techniques
о Durability Concrete durability requirements are specified on most major bridge and pavements projects. "Rapid Chloride
о Workability of fresh concrete depends on its rheological. properties. This rheological behavior is defined by two characteristics of the
о concrete, i.e. yield stress and plastic viscosity

NOTE:
о Yield stress is the effort needed to initiate movement of the fresh concrete, and correlates well with slump.
о Plastic viscosity is the flow characteristics of the concrete while moving and for low stiffness concretes can be determined by various
rheometers currently available.

SELF-COMPACTING CONCRETE
о SCC provides improvements in strength, density, durability, volume stability, bond, and abrasion resistance
о SCC is especially useful in confined zones where vibrating compaction is difficult
о The reduction in schedule is limited since a large portion of the schedule is still controlled by the time required to erect and remove
formwork

STEEL REINFORCEMENT
о Steel bars, strands and wires are required to absorb the concrete's weakness in tensile and shear stress
о Steel reinforcement is required to tie the vertical and horizontal elements, reinforce openings, minimize shrinkage cracking and control
thermal expansion and contraction
о Although, engineers can design reinforced concrete, a competent structural engineer must be tapped to investigate and ultimately
incorporate into final design.

FUNCTION OF REINFORCEMENT
о Tensile strength for bending members
о Resistance to shrinkage
о Ductility

Diameter
Designation
in mm
#2 1/4 4
#3 3/8 10
#4 1/2 12
#5 5/8 16
#6 3/4 20
#7 7/8 22
#8 1 25
#9 1-1/8 28
#10 1-1/4 32

MORTAR
Mortars are usually named according to the binding material used in their preparation
They are essentially required for masonry work, plastering, painting, etc.

Note:
Mortar = cement + sand + water
Plaster = cement + lime + sand + water
Grout = cement + sand + considerable amount of water
Paste = cement + water

Function of Mortar
1 To bind together the bricks or stones properly so as to provide strength to the structure
2 To form a homogenous mass of the structure so as to resist all loads coming over it without disintegration
3 To provide a weather resisting i.e., a durable layer between the different courses of masonry in the structure
4 To hold coarse aggregate together in any concrete so as to form a solid mass. (the mortar used in a concrete is termed as matrix)

5 To do painting and plastering to the structure. (the mortar used for plastering is known as plaster)
6 To fill up empty joints in brick and stone masonry. (the mortar used for such purposes is a thin liquid mortar which is termed a grout
and the process is known as grouting)
 To fill up empty joints in brick and stone masonry. (the mortar used for such purposes is a thin liquid mortar which is termed a grout
and the process is known as grouting)

Preparation of Mortar
1 The sands and the cement have to be thoroughly mixed by hand or in a mechanical mixer before adding any water
2 Once the dry ingredients are mixed, the water can be added
3 If any additives are being used, such as plasticizer or a frost-proofer, they are normally added to the water, and then mixed in, rather
than being directly added to the dry ingredients.
4 More water is added a bit at a time and folded in until the required. consistency is attained
5 When using a mechanical mixer, add half a bucket (2 or 3 liters) of clean cold water to the empty drum before adding the dry
ingredients in sequence
6 Add 4 measures of sand then 1 cement, followed by 4 sand, then another cement and so on until the required quantity is in the mixer

7 Again, the water is added to the revolving drum once the dry ingredients are thoroughly blended, a bit at a time until the required
consistency is achieved.

Types of Mortar
1 Cement Mortar
о The paste is prepared by mixing cement and sand in suitable proportions in addition to water
о The general proportion is 1 part of cement to 2-8 parts clean sand
о These mortars must be used within an hour (before initial setting time of the cement)
о This type is used for all engineering works where high strength is desired such as load bearing walls, deep foundations, flooring etc.

2 Lime Mortar
о The paste is prepared by mixing lime and sand in suitable proportions in addition to water
о These mortars are inferior to cement mortars in strength as well as water tightness
о These mortars should not be used for underground works as they set in the presence of carbon dioxide and break up in damp
conditions
о This type is used for construction work above ground level (exposed positions)

3 Lightweight Mortar
о The paste is prepared by mixing wood powder, wood sawing or saw dust with cement or lime mortar
о These are generally used as fiber plasters in sound and heat proof construction

4 Fire Resistant Mortar

о The paste is prepared by mixing aluminous cement and finely crushed fire bricks in suitable proportions in addition to water

о The usual proportion are 1 part aluminous cement to 2 parts of finely crushed fire bricks
о These are generally used for ovens and fire places with fire bricks

5 Mud Mortar
о The paste is prepared by mixing suitable clayey soil with water
о The soil which is used for preparing mud mortar should be free from grass, pebbles, etc.
о The cheapest mortars but weakest in strength
о These mortars are used for brickwork of ordinary buildings and for plastering walls in rural areas

CEMENT
о Popular as building material
о Material with adhesive & cohesive properties
о To bind the fine & coarse aggregate together
о To fill voids in between fine & coarse aggregate particle form a compact mass.

COMPOSITION OF CEMENT
Elements Percentage
Calcium Oxide 60% - 65%
Silica (SiO2) 20% - 25%
Aluminum Oxide 4% - 8%
Ferrous Oxide 2% - 4%
Magnesium Oxide 1% - 3%

THREE MIXTURES OF CEMENT

1 Cement Paste - A mixture of cement & water
2 Cement Mortar - A mixture of cement, sand & water to form a paste
3 Cement Concrete - A composite product which is obtained by mixing cement, water, inert matrix of sand and gravel or crushed stone

Two Major Kinds of Cement

1. Pozzolan Cement
 о The ancient Romans have discovered that the addition of some volcanic earths (Pozzolenas) to lime gave a product, which hardened
under water (hydraulic)
о Derived from Pozzouli, a villa near Naples, Rome - famous for a particularly effective volcanic earth
о Chalks containing siliceous clays when burnt can be used for concreting

2. Portland Cement
о Through experiment, experience and practice, man has made Portland cement by blending materials calcium, alumina, iron and slilica

о Made by mixing substances containing Calcium Carbonate such as chalk or limestone, with substances containing silica, alumina and
iron oxide such as clay or shale
о An important principle to remember about the cement making process is the dehydration (draining out) of the materials by using
intense heat.
о When the cement is later mixed with water, the process reverses tu hydration (combining the water) and the cement-water paste will
become hard as rock
о On a 20°C day the first phase of the hydration process (called the initial set) will occur in one or more hours
о If the temperature is more than 20°C, it will occur at a slower rate. Most engineers will call for time limits from 1 to 1-1/2 hours form the
start of mixing to the placing of the concrete.
о About 30 kg of water are required to hydrate 100 kg of cement.

NOTES:
Joseph Aspdin, an English mason who patented the product in 1824, named it Portland cement because it produced a concrete that
resembled the color of the natural limestone quarried on the Isle of Portland, a peninsula in the English Channel.

Modern Day Portland Cement Ingredients

1 Clay/shale
о SiO2 Silica (Silicon Oxide) [abbreviated S]
о Fe2O3 Ferrite (Iron Oxide) [abbreviated F]
о Al2O3 Alumina (aluminum oxide) [abbreviated A]

2 Limestone/chalk
о CaCO3 Calcium carbonate [abbreviated C]

Chemical compounds in Portland cement

1 Tri-calcium Silicate - 3CaO.SiO2 (C3S)
о C3S hydrates and hardens rapidly and is largely responsible for initial set and early strength
о In general, the early strength of Portland cement concrete is higher with increased percentages of C#S

2 Di-calcium Silicate - 2Cao.SiO2 (C2S)

о C2S hydrates and hardens slowly and contributes largely to strength increase at ages beyond 1 week

3 Tricalcium Aluminate - 3CaO.Al2O3 (C3A)

о C3A liberates a large amount of heat during the first few days of hydration and hardening
о It also contributes slightly to early development

4 Tetracalcium Aluminoferrite - 4CaO.Al2O3.Fe2-O3

о C4AF reduces the clinkering temperature, thereby assisting in the manufacture of cement
о It hydrates rather rapidly but contribute very little to strength

Types of Portland Cement

1 Type I and Type IA
о Suitable for all general uses such as pavement, sidewalks, buildings, bridges, tanks, water pipes, etc.

2 Type II and Type IIA

о Used when the acid or sulphate content of the groundwater or soil in higher than the normal
о It generates heat of hydration at a slower rate than Type I Used in large piers, heavy abutments and retaining wall
о Used in large piers, heavy abutments and retaining wall

3 Type III and IIIA

о Gain strength faster and develop more heat of hydration than the other Portland cements
о May be used if you are in a hurry to strip forms and use them again
о Used when you need to put the concrete into service faster than normal
о Used in cold weather to reduce the protection needed

4 Type IV
о Since this type has low heat of hydration, it is used in massive structure such as large dams where the temperature rise during
hardening may cause serious problems

5 Type V
о This type is used where solids or groundwater have a high content sulphate or acid
о Structure exposed to coal mine drainage should be considered for type V
BLENDED HYDRAULIC CEMENT
In addition to five types listed in ASTM C 150, there are several blended cements covered by ASTM C 595

Two Most Common Blended Cements:

1 Type IS Portland Blast Furnace Slag Cement
2 Type IP Portland Pozzolan Cement

Other Types of Cement

1 Rapid hardening or High Early Strength Cement
2 Quick Setting Cement
3 High Alumina Cement
4 Low Heat Cement
5 Air Entraining Cement
6 White Cement
7 Coloured Cement
8 Portland Pozzolan Cement

SETTING
о When cement is mixed with sufficient water, within 1 or 2 hours after the mixing, the sticky paste losses its fluidity; within a few hours
after mixing, noticeable stiffening commences
о Divided into 2 stages: Initial Set and Final Set
1 Initial Set is when the paste begins to stiffen. Initial setting time is the time lapse from the addition of water in the mix to
the initial set
2 Final Set is when the paste beginning to harden and able to sustain some loads

Initial Setting time and Final Setting time can be determined by using Vicat Apparatus in laboratory. The time taken for a 1-mm
diameter needle in the Vicat. apparatus to penetrate a depth of 25 mm into the cement past sample is the initial setting time. The final
setting time is reached when in the modified Vicat apparatus only the needle penetrates the surface, while the attachment fails to do
so. The rate of setting is also a measure of the rate of heat of hydration.

Factors Affecting Setting Time

1 Fineness of Cement
2 Chemical Composition
3 Amount of water

Note:
Gypsum is added to clinker to retard setting and prevent flash set.
Flash set - the rapid development of permanent rigidity of the cement paste along with high heat
False set - the rapid development of rigidity without the evolution of heat

HARDENING
о It is the development of strength over an extended period of time, completed for months or years
о Hydration process are gradual and require continuous presence of water
о Adding water to the cement would cause temperature of the mixture rise rapidly due to reaction between Tricalcium Aluminate and
о water that is initially quite rapid
о Thereafter, setting and gradual hardening take place by the reaction of Tricalcium Silicate and Dicalcium Silicate with water.

о Hydration rate depends on the exposed surface area of clinker and the fineness of grinding.
о Rate of hydration decreases continuously with age as the resistance to water penetration of unhydrated cement grains progressively
rises

COLOR
о Color should be uniform
о Typical cement color (gray color with light greenish shade)
о It gives an indication of excess of lime or clay and the degree of burning

PRESENCE OF LUMPS
о It should free from hard lumps
о It is due to the association of moisture from atmosphere
о If a bag contains lumps, it should be rejected

Properties of Portland Cement

1 Fineness of Cement
о Affects heat released and the rate of hydration
о Greater cement fineness increases the rate at which cement hydrates and thus accelerates strength development

о It is measured by the Blaine Air Permeability Test or the 45 microns

2 Soundness
о Refers to the ability of a hardened paste to retain its volume after setting
о Lackof soundness or delayed destructive expansion is caused by excessive amounts of hard burned free magnesia
 3 Consistency
о Refers to the relative mobility of a freshly mixed cement paste or mortar to its ability to flow
о Both the normal consistency method and flow test are used to regulate water contents of paste and mortars
respectively, to be used in subsequent, both allow comparing dissimilar ingredients with the same flow.

4 Setting Time
о To determine if cement sets according to the time limits specified in ASTM C 150, tests are performed using either the
Vicat apparatus or a Gilmore needle.
о Initial set of cement paste must not occur too early, final set must not occur too late.
о The setting time indicates that the paste is or is not undergoing normal hydration reactions

5 False Set (ASTM C 451)

о Paste method, and the ASTM C359 mortar method, is evidenced by a significant loss of plasticity without the evolution
of much heat shortly after mixing

6 Compressive Strength
о As specified by ASTM C150, it can be obtained from test of standard 2-inch mortar cubes tested in accordance with
ASTM C109.
о These cubes are made and cured in prescribed manner using sand. Compressive strength is influenced by the cement
type, or more precisely, than the compound composition and fineness of cement.

7 Heat of Hydration
о A heat generated when cement and water react
о It results first in setting (the concrete become solid) and then hardening (increase of strength and stiffness)

8 Loss of Ignition
о Is determined by heating the sample of known weight to 900°C to 1,000°C until a constant weight is obtained

о Normally, a high loss of ignition is an indication of prehydration and carbonation, which may be caused by improper or
prolonged storage or adulteration during transport and transfer

9 Specific Gravity
о The specific gravity of Portland cement is generally about 3.15
о Portland blast furnace-slag and Portland-pozzolan cements may have specific gravity of 2.90

10 Weight of Cement
о Most Portland cements are shipped in bulk by rail, truck or barge.
о Pneumatic loading and unloading of the transport vehicle is the most bet popular means of handling bulk cement
cananit
о The actual density of bulk Portland cement can vary considerably depending on how it is handled and stored.

о
For this reason, good practice has decreed that bulk cement must be gol weighted for each batch of concrete

TESTS ON CEMENT
1 Consistency Test
2 Compressive Strength Test
3 Tensile Strength Test

Consistency Tests
It is used to determine the percent of water required for preparing cement pastes for other tests.

Procedures:
о Take 300g cement, add 30% or 90g of water
о Mix water and cement on a non-porous surface. Mixing should be done.
о Fill the mould of Vicat apparatus
Compressive Strength Test
1 Cement & sand is prepared, ratio of 1:3
2 Water is added, water-cement ratio of 0.4:1
3 Place in moulds & form cubes of sides 76 mm
4 The cement required is 185 or 235 g
5 Compacted in vibrating machine in 2 min
6 Moulds placed in damp cabin for 24 hours
7 Remove specimen & place in water for curing
8 Test by compressive testing machine after 3 and 7 days
9 Every side is calculated & the average is taken

For 3 days: > 115 kg/cm2 or 11.5 N/mm2

For 7 days: > 175 kg/cm2 or 17.5 N/mm2

Tensile Strength Test

1 Cement & sand is prepared, ratio 1:3
2 Water is added, 8%
3 Mortar is placed in briquette moulds
4 Typical briquette is formed
5 A small heap is formed at its top
6 Beaten down by a standard spatula until water appears on the surface
7 Same procedure is repeated for other sides of briquettes
8 Twelve standard briquettes are prepared
9 The quantity of cement may be 600g for 12 briquettes
10 Kept in damp cabin for 24 hours
11 Carefully removed from mould and submerged in clean water for curing
12 Tested in testing machine after 3 and 7 days
13 The cross section of briquettes at least is 6.45 cm2

Ultimate Tensile Stress = (Failing load) / 6.45

After 3 days: > 20kg/cm2
After 7 days: > 25kg/cm2
WATER
Requirements for Water
о Almost any water fit to drink can be used for mixing with cement to make the concrete paste. Water that is not fit to drink can still be
used.
о If there is any doubt about the quality of water, strength & setting time, test can be made to compare it with samples made from the
water that is suitable for making concrete

A good concrete practice!

Keep the extra water as low as possible but be practical

AIR VOIDS
TWO TYPES OF AIR IN CONCRETE
1 Entrapped Air
о Not desirable for concrete
о Are visible to the eye
о When we place and consolidate concrete, we try to squeeze out all the entrapped air that we possibly can.

2 Entrained Air
о Desirable for concrete
о Entrained air bubbles are barely visible to the eye
о The first air-entrained concrete was made accidentally, took some good detective work to find that grease and oil had dripped into
some cements during is manufacture.
о These soapy materials produced billions of tiny bubbles when scrubbed against the sand when the concrete was mixed
о Concrete pavements containing the tiny air bubbles were much durable than pavements that contained entrapped air voids.

TOTAL AIR
Both entrained air and a small amount of entrapped air will be present in air-entrained concrete, and the field test made by a concrete technician will
putron measure their sum (Total air)

Note:
Concrete: 6% +20%
Mortar fraction: 10% ± 3.5%
Paste fraction: 17% ± 5%

Air Void Analyzer

о AVA device can characterize the air void structure (volume, size, and spacing) of fresh concrete
о The clear advantage of the AVA is its ability to characterize the air void structure on fresh concrete in less than 30 minutes.

о With this information, adjustments can be made in the production process during concrete placement

ADMIXTURES
THREE GENERAL CLASSES OF ADMIXTURES
1 AIR ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES
2 CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES
3 MINERAL ADMIXTURES

Air-entraining Admixtures
о Air-entraining are not as popular now as they used to be
о Air-entraining agents (derivatives from oil, soil, fat, resin, etc.) are added at the mixer
о It is easier to control the air content of concrete by using non-airentraining cement and adding and entraining admixture when the
concrete is batched. All concrete exposed to freezing weather should be air-entrained

Chemical Admixtures
о Are generally liquid that are dispensed by volume
о Dosage rates of these admixtures is used for concrete

TYPES OF CHEMICAL ADMIXTURES

TYPE DESCRIPTION
A Water reducing admixture
B Retarding Admixture
C Accelerating Admixture
D Water reducing and retarding admixture
 E Water reducing and accelerating admixture
F Water reducing, High range admixture

Type A (Water-Reducing Admixture)

о Reduces the amount of water required to produce a concrete of a given slump or consistency
о A decrease in the water content of a concrete mixture reduces the water cement ratio which increases its strength.
о Water reducing admixtures may permit a reduction in the amount of cement needed because they reduce the amount of water needed
to obtain the required slump and workability of the concrete

Type B (Retarding Admixture)

о Slows down the early hardening of concrete.
о The initial setting time of the paste can be retarded from 1 to 1-1/2 hours over its normal setting time, but this does not affect the
strength gained after the initial set has occurred.
о The retardation of the initial set beyond the normal setting time with the particular admixture and cement combination

Type C (Accelerating Admixture)

о This admixture speeds up both the initial and the final set, and causes the concrete to develop strength at a faster rate.
о Speeds up the setting of concrete to reduce the whole curing period or for early removal of forms

Type D (Water Reducing and Retarding Admixture)

о Reduces the amount of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given slump and retards the initial set of concrete

Type E (Water Reducing and Accelerating Admixture)

о Reduces the amount of mixing water needed to produce concrete of a given slump and accelerates the initial setting time and strength
development of the concrete

Type F (Water Reducing, High Range Admixture)

о Reduces the amount of mixing water required to produce concrete of a given slump by at least 12% and retards the initial set of
concrete
о Is also known as superplasticizer or fluidizer.

Mineral Admixtures
о Used to modify the properties of concrete, or as partial cement replacement to lower the cost of producing concrete
о It is important when using these materials that you have a good understanding of exactly how they will behave in concrete.

о Mineral admixtures within the same group can vary by source, and it is also important to know these variations as it will affect the
performance of the concrete.
о These admixtures are typically solid materials that are measured by weight
о While there are many materials that could be discussed, we will focus on the three most common mineral admixtures, namely:

1 Fly Ash
2 Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag
3 Micro Silica

Fly Ash
о Fly ash is the widely used mineral admixture that has fineness similar to cement.
о Specifications have allowed partial cement replacements with fly ash for a number of years with the rate of 30-150 kg/m3 of concrete

Production of Fly Ash

о Fly ash is one of the residues created during the combustion of coal in coal - fired power plants
о Fine particles rise with flue gasses and are collected with filter bags or electrostatic precipitators
о Fly ash is a waste by-product material that must be disposed of or recycled
о 131 million tons of fly ash are produced annually by 460 coal -fired power plants in the U.S. alone.

Chemical Composition of Fly Ash

Because fly ash is a by-product material, chemical constituents can vary considerably but all fly ashes include:
о Silicon Dioxide (SiO2)
о Calcium Oxide (CaO), also known as Lime
о Iron (III) Oxide (FeO2)
о Aluminum Oxide (Al2O3)

Depending on source coal, it may include one or more toxic chemicals in trace amounts:
Arsenic, Beryllium, Boron, Cadmium, Chromium, Cobalt, Lead, manganese, Mercury, Molybdenum, Selenium,
Strontium, Thallium and Vanadium
 Comparison of Chemical and Physical Characteristics
Portland Class F Fly Class C Slag Silica
Property
Cem ent Ash Fly Ash Cem ent Fum e
SiO2 Content, % 21 52 35 35 85-97
AI2O3 Content, % 5 23 18 12
FeO3 Content, % 3 11 6 1
CaO Content, % 62 5 21 40 <1
Fineness surface area,
370 420 420 400 15000-30000
m2/kg (Note 2)
Specific Gravity 3.15 2.38 2.65 294 2.22
Primary Cement Cement Cement Property
General use in concrete
binder replacement replacement replacement Enhancer

ASTM C618
о Covers the specification for fly ash that is used in concrete
о This specification classifies the different types of fly ash and defines its chemical and physical requirements, as follows:

ASTM C618 requirements:

о Loss of Ignition (LOI) < 4%
о 75% of ash must have fineness of 45 μm or less

Classification of Fly Ash

Class F Fly Ash
о Primarily pozzolanic in nature, which means it reacts chemically with the cement hydration products to form compounds
that are cementitious
о Produced from burning harder, older anthracite and bituminous coal
о Contains less than 20% lime
о Requires cementing agent like PC, quick lime, hydrated lime
о Used in high sulphate exposure conditions
о Addition of air entrainer is needed
о Used for structural concretes, HP concretes, high sulphate exposure concretes
о Useful in high fly ash content concrete mixes

Class C Fly Ash

о Besides having pozzolanic properties, also has some cementitious properties, which means it can gain strength by itself
when mixed with water.
о Produced from burning lignite and subbituminous coal
о Has higher concentration of alkali and sulphate
о Contains more than 20% lime
о Self cementing properties
о Does not require activator
о Does not require air entrainer
о Not for use in high sulphate conditions
о Primarily for residential construction
о Limited to low fly ash content concrete mixes

Contrasts between Class C and Class F Fly Ash

1 Class C fly ash is typically not as effective as Class F fly ash in mitigation of ASR
2 Class C will generate more heat of hydration that class F
3 Class C will generally not as resistant to sulphate attack as Class F. ASTM C 168 prohibits the use of Class C in high sulphate
exposure environments
4 Class C will generate more strength at early ages than Class F.
5 Generally, Class F can be used for high fly ash content concretes (up to 40% of C.M.) whereas Class is used in low fly ash content
concretes.

Benefits of Fly Ash

1 Reduces the water demand
2 Reduces the permeability
3 Reduces the heat of hydration
4 Can aid in finishabilitiy and pumping
5 Can be used in high strength applications
6 Can reduce or eliminate alkali silica reaction

Note:
Not all fly ashes provide all of the above benefits equally. Certain ashes outperform others. In general, Class F ashes will not perform
as well as Class C ashes.

Fly Ash in Portland Cement (P.C.) Concrete

о Roman structures including the aqueducts and the pantheon in Rome used volcanic ash which possess very similar properties to fly
ash
о Use of fly ash as pozzolanic ingredient was recognized as early as 1914 but first noteworthy study of its use in Portland Cement
о concrete was in 1937
о 30% of fly ash in the US is recycled into making concrete
 Environmental Benefits:
о Supplementing cementitious materials with fly ash reduces Portland Cement demand
о Reduces volume of land-filled fly ash
о Conserves water by reducing water demand in concrete mixes

Physical/Mechanical Benefits
1 Increased Strength 6 Reduces segregation and bleeding
2 Decreases permeability 7 Lowers heat of hydration
3 Generally increases durability 8 Reduces corrosion of reinforcing steel
4 Increased sulphate resistance (Class F) 9 Generally (mostly Class F) reduces Alkali-Silica Reaction (ASR)
5 Reduces water demand/ increases workability

о Fly ash acts as a pozzolan when used as a supplementary cementitious material in concrete
о Pozzolans are materials which, when combined with calcium hydroxide, 916 seed exhibit cementitious properties.
о Pozzolans hydrate in the presence of water in a similar fashion as Portland in cement but do not generate the strength that P.C. bonds
do and generally gain strength slowly over a much greater period of time.
о Many by-product pozzolans exist such as Blast Furnace Slag, Silica Fume, Cement-kiln Dust, and Rice Husk ash which impart varying
effects on concrete plastic and mechanical properties but fly ash is by far the most a widely used in concrete applications

Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

о Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag (GGBF Slag) is another material that is commonly referred to as mineral admixtures

о While it is considered as a mineral admixture, it is in reality a hydraulic cement. That is, it gains considerable strength when mixed with
water.
о The chemical properties of these materials are similar to Portland cement. GGBF Slag replaces cement at a rate generally 15% to
70%.
о GGBF Slag is a manufactured material which is derived from a by-product of the manufacture of iron.
о During the production of iron, the one is fluxed primarily with limestone which is tapped from the blast furnace as a molten slag. This
slag is rapidly quenched and the resulting granules are ground to fineness similar to cement. It is blended with Portland cement either
о at a cement mill, or at a concrete batch plant.
о It is rarely used as the sole cementing materials in concrete
о The specification that covers the production of these materials is ASTM C 989
о It is classified into one of three grades based on the strength performance of a blend of GGBF and portland cement.

BENEFITS OF BLENDING
By varying the percentage of the blend of Portland cement and GGBF Slag, certain beneficial properties can be achieved in concrete:

1 Reduces the water demand

2 Greatly reduces permeability
3 Can provide sulphate resistance sugge
4 Reduces the heat of hydration
5 Can aid in finishability
6 Can be used in high strength applications
7 Can reduce or eliminate alkali-silica reaction

MICRO SILICA
о It is a material that is a by-product of the production of silicon metals (known as silica fume)
о Micro silica is an extremely fine powder that is finer than cigarette smoke. Because of this, it is handled either as a slurry mixed with
water, or as densified powder.
о Typically, micro silica is used in a rate of 20 to 70 kg/m3 of concrete
о The specification that covers this material is ASTM C1240
о Micro silica is a very reactive source of silica that reacts with cement hydration products which provides unique properties to concrete.
These are very low permeability and high strength.
о Because of its fineness, it is generally used with significant dosages of a high range water reducer to control the water demand of the
concrete mix
о The fineness of this material and the high dosage rate of high range water reducing admixtures results in a concrete that is generally
considered more difficult to finish.
о Concrete that contains micro silica has very little or no bleed water, which besides contributing to difficulty in finishing, also makes the
concrete more susceptible to cracking while it is in a plastic condition. This type of cracking is referred to as plastic shrinkage.

о Even with these potential difficulties the benefits derived from micro silica make it a desirable material in certain applications.

о Adjustment to production and finishing techniques can overcome many of the difficulties associated with its use.

Other Types of Admixture

1 Pozzolanic Admixture
Used as substitute for cement (35%) for structures in high temperatures and seawater installation or as additives to decrease the
weight of a concrete per cubic foot.
2 Waterproofing
Integrated type in powder form added during mixing that render surface in decks, basements and pools water impervious.
 3 Coloring Agent
Pigments or dyes mixed into topping to render/alter color evenly to concrete surface
4 Surface Sealing Agents
Liquid waxes sprayed over the surface that is easily removed after curing.
Prevents evaporation of water into a new concrete allowing hydration and seal the pores of concrete surface after it has hardened.

5 Set inhibiting Agent

In liquid form (applied immediately before pouring of concrete) or powder form (applied directly after pouring)
Inhibiting the setting of cement paste avoiding bonding to surface aggregates and left exposed for architectural effect
6 Dispersal Agents
Prevents bleeding of concrete from concrete
7 Bonding Agent
Either metallic aggregate (bonding thru oxidation and expansion) or synthetic latex emulsion (sprayed or painted to coalesce and
bond) to improve the bond between old and new concrete
8 Gas Forming Agent
Develops the potential strength of a concrete.
9 Non-skid Surfaces
Use abrasive material in topping to produce non-skid surface for pavement construction
10 Hardener
Chemical/fine metallic aggregate to improve the density of concrete surface subject to impact and wear

SUMMARY
What are admixtures?
о Formulated products
о Usually in liquid form
о Added to concrete, mortars or grouts at a dosage of less than 5% on cement to modify and/or improve the properties of
concrete or mortar in the wet and/or hardened state

Types of Admixtures:
1 Plasticizers (also called water reducers)
о Normal Plasticizers / water reducers
о Superplasticizers/high range water reducers
2 Air Entrainers
3 Retarders
4 Accelerators
5 Special Purpose Admixtures

Cement without Admixtures:

о Cement naturally flocculates
о Mix water is trapped within flocs
о Trapped water is not available for workability
о Workability low to minimize water cement ratio

Cement with Plasticizing Admixtures

о Cement is deflocculated
о Entrapped water is released
о Cement particles move freely
о Workability increases
о Cement hydration improved

INFLUENCE OF DOSAGE OF CHEMICAL ADMIXTURE ON VISCOSITY OF CEMENT. SLURRY TESTED AT 205 1/s SHEAR
RATE: 1-WITH PLASTICIZER (LIGNOSULPHONATES); 2-WITH SUPERPLASTICIZER (POLYCARBOXYL POLYMERS); 3-WITH
AIR-ENTRAINING ADMIXTURES; 4-WITH VISCOSITY-MODIFYING ADMIXTURE (SYNTHETIC POLYMERS WITH BIG
MOLECULAR MASS)
 Chemical used for Admixtures:
о Lignosulfonates (Water Reducer, 10%)
о Hydroxycarboxylic acid (strong retarders)
о Phosphate/Hydrocarboxylic blends
о Naphthalene sulfonate formaldehyde polymers (water reducers, 20%)
о Melamine sulfonate formaldehyde polymers (water reducers, 20%)
о Polycarboxylic Ethers (Extremely Good Water Reducer, 35%)

Superplasticizers or High Range Water Reducers

о Work in the same way as normal plasticizers
о Can be used at higher dosage
о Are most effective at high dosage
о Do not have undesirable side effects at high dosage

Accelerating Admixtures:
о Set Accelerating
Accelerate the loss of workability
Give early stiffening (set) as measured by penetrating resistance
Do not all give higher early strength
о Strength Accelerating
Give higher early compressive strength
Do not all give set acceleration
о Retarding Admixture
Retarders are strongly absorbed unto cement surfaces
Early hydration is inhibited by layer of retarders

Benefits of Retarders
1 Extended setting for
Long transportation
Delayed placing
Hot weather concreting
Slip forming
Large pours
Ready-mixed building mortars
2 Extension of vibration limit
3 Elimination of cold joints
4 Higher 28-day strength

о Special Purpose Admixtures

Semi-dry concrete admixtures
Shotcrete admixtures
Underwater concrete admixtures
Wash water treatment
о Suspension and reactivation of hydration
Foam concrete admixtures
Permeability reducers
Polymer admixtures
Pumping aids
Ready to use mortar admixture systems

Pavement System
Pavement Components WEARING COURSE ITEM 311
о Embankment Foundation о Subbase Course BASE ITEM 201
о Embankment (Fill) о Base Course SUBBASE ITEM 200
о Subgrade (Basement Soil) о Wearing Course (Concrete) SUBGRADE ITEM 105

Flexible Pavem ent Rigid Pavem ent

Load distribution (w ide area) Load distribution (w ider area)
Bituminous surface Concrete Surface
Load, carry capacity from load Distribute load over a w ider area of
distribution characteristic of the soil
layered system
Thickness design influenced by Load carry capacity from the
strength of pavement structural strength of concrete due to
high rigidity
Shorter life span Minor variation in subgrade strength
have little influence on structural
Higher maintenance cost capacity
 LOAD DISTRIBUTION

Admixture
CaCl2
о Used for the control of moisture
о Shall meet the requirements of Standard Specification for CaCl2 (AASHTO M144)
Theory of concrete mix design
о Optimize aggregate packing
о When the concrete is freshly made or is in a plastic form, the paste serves as a lubricant in the mix
о As the paste hardens, it serves as the glue that binds the aggregates together

MATERIALS QUALITY CONTROL OF CONCRETE

QUALITIES OF GOOD CONCRETE
о Strong proper selection of materials
о Durable correct proportion and mixing process
о Uniform Quality careful transportation and placement
о Thoroughly Sound - timed curing and provision for protection

DIFFERENT PROCESS OF MIXING CONCRETE

о Manual-flat surface with shovels and buggy
о Small Power - a manual mixing rotating drum
о Bagger Mixer-equipped with diesel engine and pump operated mechanical mixing drum (1 or 2 bags) or rotating mixing
drum at the back of a truck

METHODS OF TRANSPORTING A CONCRETE

о Ready Mixed - concrete mixed at batch plant for delivery by an agitator to construction site
о Shrink Mixed - concrete partially mixed at the batch plant then mixed completely in a truck mixed then route to construction site

о Transit Mixed - concrete dry batch at a batch plant & mixed at truck mixer then route to construction site
о Gunite or "Shotcrete" for lightweight construction where concrete mix is pumped through a hose and sprayed at high velocity over
reinforcement until desired thickness is reached.

Concrete Tests
о The utilization of advanced test procedures (various shrinkage tests, air-void analyser and non-destructive tests) have become
widespread.
о Workability test for stiff concrete mixes is being evaluated by several organizations
о In-situ concrete testing, effective curing practices and utilization of computer software to monitor concrete strength, development as
well as minimizing cracking potential are used on major transportation projects

Control of concrete mix

о Measure the consistency of freshly mixed concrete including mortar and stucco
о Where a concrete is placed at a slump cone (12" high with a respective top diameter and bottom is 4" and 8") and tamped in a
prescribed manner then lifted to determine the decrease in height expressed by vertical setting in inches

ALLOWABLE SLUMP
Structural Member Slump
Beams and Columns 3"
Slabs, walls, parapets and tops 2"
Side walls and arches 4"
Heavy mass of concrete 2"

Compressive Cylinder Test

о A quasi-quality control test based on 7-28 days curing period to determine the compressive strength of a concrete
specimen
о A metal cast cylinder (12" high and 6" dia.) is poured with concrete and taken out within 24 hours while still wet and dated
 о Sent to laboratory to check if it can support axial compression before fracturing.

Consolidation of Concrete
о The process of eliminating voids other than entrained air within newly placed concrete and ensuring close contact of the
concrete with form surfaces and embedded steel reinforcement by means of vibration, spading and loading.
о Excessive vibration causes segregation
Segregation - separation of coarse aggregate from mortar causing excessive horizontal movement making a free fall

Excessive vibration also causes stratification

Stratification - separation combined with excessive wetting into horizontal layers where lighter material migrates
towards the top

Methods of construction
Cast-In Place concrete deposited, formed and cured and finished in its final position as a part of structure
Slip Form - a form that can be moved slowly and continuously as concrete is being placed during the construction of concrete
pavement or building
Lift Slab Construction - structural members are sequentially lifted into final position
Tilt-Up Construction - structural members are custom precasted on site then hoisted into final position
Pre-Stressing - pre-tensioning and post-tensioning

Tools in concrete construction

Curing Blanket - built covering made of sack, matting, burlap, wet earth, sawdust, straw and plastic
Scaffolding or staging a temporary platform structure of wooden poles & planks providing platform for working men to stand while
erecting or repairing buildings and provide access to work areas above ground
Formwork - temporary construction to contain wet concrete in the required shape while it is cast & set

Curing - maintaining the humidity and temperature of freshly placed concrete during some definite period following, placing, casting or
finishing to assure satisfactory hydration of cementitious materials and proper hardening of concrete.

Concrete Finishes
Beton brut concrete left in natural state after formwork is removed. reflecting the texture, joints and fasteners of board form

Finish broom, float, exposed aggregate, swirl, bush hammered

Topping a layer of high quality concrete or mortar placed to form a floor surface on a concrete base.

Sampling of Fresh Concrete

1 Sample of fresh concrete from which test specimens are made shall be representative of the entire batch;
2 Elapsed time between obtaining the first and final portions of composite samples shall not exceed 15 minutes;
3 Start tests for slump or air content within 5 minutes after obtaining the final portion of the composite sample;
4 Start molding specimens for strength tests within 15 minutes after fabricating the composite sample;
5 Sample the concrete from stationary mixers, (except paving mixers) at two or more regularly spaced intervals during discharge of
middle portion of the batch;

6 Sample the concrete from paving mixers after the contents of the paving. mixer have been discharged. Obtain samples from at least
five different portions of the pile and then composite into one sample for test purposes; and
7 Sample the concrete from revolving drum truck mixer or agitators at two or more regularly spaced intervals during discharge of the
middle portion of the batch.

Slump Test
The concrete slump test measures the consistency of fresh concrete before it sets. It is performed to check the workability of freshly made concrete,
and therefore, the ease with which concrete flows. It can also be used as an indicator of an improperly mixed batch. The test is popular due to the
simplicity of apparatus used and simple procedure. The slump test is used to ensure uniformity for different loads of concrete under field conditions.

The test is carried out using a metal mould in the shape of a conical frustum known as a slump cone or Abrams cone, that is open at the both ends
and has attached handles.

Dimension of Slump Cone:

Diameter of the base: 203mm
Diameter of the top: 102mm
Altitude: 305mm

The coné is placed on a hard non-absorbent surface. This cone is filled with fresh concrete in three stages. Each time, each layer is tamped 25 times
with a 2 ft. (600 mm)-long bullet-nosed metal rod measuring 5/8 in (16 mm) in diameter. At the end of the third stage, the concrete is struck off flush
with the top of the mould. The mould is carefully lifted vertically upwards, so as not to disturb the concrete cone.

The concrete then slumps (subsides). The slump of the concrete is measured by measuring the distance from the top of the slumped concrete to the
level of the top of the slump cone.
In the United States, engineers use the ASTM standards and AASHTO specifications when referring to the concrete slump test. The American
standards explicitly state that the slump cone should have a height of 12-in (300 mm), a bottom diameter of 8- in (200 mm) and an upper diameter of
4-in (100 mm). The soft SI conversions provided in the standard allow using the same dimension slump cones as those described in other standards.
The ASTM standards also regulate the rigidity of the cone. It states in the procedure that when the cone is removed, it should be lifted up vertically,
without any rotational movement at all. The concrete slump test is known as "Standard Test Method for Slump of Hydraulic-Cement Concrete" and
carries the code (ASTM C 143) or (AASHTOT 119).

MAKING AND CURING CONCRETE TEST SPECIMENS IN THE FIELD

For the method of making and curing concrete specimens in the laboratory (AASHTO Designation T126)

1 Molding of (Beam) Flexure Test Specimens

For Concrete Pavement

Flexural Strength of Beam Specimens

a Third Point Loading Method
If the fracture occurs in the tension surface within the middle third of the span length.

b. Center Point Loading Method:

If the fracture occurs in the tension surface outside of the middle third of the span length by not more than 5 percent of the span
length.

Where:
a = average distance between line of fracture and the nearest support measured on the tension surface of the beam.
R = Modulus of Rupture
P = Load
L= Span length
b-base
d = depth

2 Curing
A Application of water to counteract evaporation
(Ponding, Sprinkling, Spraying, Wet burlap, Wet Earth, Wet Sand, Saw Dust, Straw)
 B Application of water proof paper or moisture retention cover sealing curing compound
Continuous moist curing at a temperature range of 15.5 °C -37.5 °C gives the best results

STRENGTH OF CYLINDER CONCRETE SPECIMENS

(AASHTO Designation T 22)
(ASTM Designation C 39)

Rate of Loading for Compressive Strength test:

Load applied at a constant rate within range 20 to 50 psi/sec.

Compressive Strength (at 14 days) = 24.1 MPa (3500 psi)

ACCEPTANCE OF CONCRETE
The strength level of the concrete will be considered satisfactory if the averages of all three (3) consecutive strength test results equal or
exceed the specified strength, and no individual strength test result is deficient by more than 15% of the specified strength.

Concrete deemed to be not acceptable using the above criteria may be rejected unless the contractor can provide evidence, by means of core tests,
that the quality of concrete represented by failed test results is acceptable in place.

Concrete in the area represented by the cores will be considered adequate if the average strength of the cores is equal to at least 85% of, and if no
single core is less than 75% of, the specified strength.