2 → Communication

A-Level Computer Science (9618)

Intro & Structure
1. Network Fundamentals 6. Internet & WWW
2. Network Topologies 7. IP Addresses
3. Cloud Computing 8. Random Hardware
4. Transmission Media
5. LAN Hardware

☕ Caffeine + 🤖 ChatGPT + ♥ Love of CS = The CS Classroom

Network Fundamentals
1. What is a network?
2. What are networking devices?
3. Local Area Networks (LAN)
4. Wide Area Networks (WLAN)
5. LAN vs. WAN
6. Client-Server Model
7. Peer-to-Peer Model
8. Thin Client
9. Thick Client
10. Thin Client vs. Thick Client
What is a computer network?

- A computer network is a
collection of
interconnected devices that
communicate and share
resources with each other
Computer Networks: Functions
- Data Sharing - Allows sharing of files,
applications, and data.
- Resource Sharing - Enables sharing of
hardware resources like printers and
storage devices.
- Communication - Facilitates email,
messaging, and video conferencing.
- Collaboration - Supports collaborative
work through shared applications and
documents.
Computer Networks: Components
- Nodes - Devices like computers,
servers, smartphones, and printers.
- Transmission Media - Wired
(Ethernet cables, fiber optics) or
wireless (Wi-Fi, radio waves).
- Network Devices - Routers,
switches, hubs, and modems.
Networking Devices: Routers
Devices that direct data
packets between different
networks based on their IP
addresses, managing traffic
within and between networks
to ensure efficient data
delivery
Networking Devices: Switches
Connect multiple devices within
the same network, directing
data packets between them
based on their MAC addresses to
facilitate communication and
resource sharing.
Networking Devices: Hubs
- Hubs are simple devices
used in networks to
connect several devices
together, and they send
data to all connected
devices at once,
regardless of which one
the data is meant for.
- Cheaper and simpler to
configure than switches
Local Area Network (LAN)
LAN (Local Area Network)
- Scope and Size - Covers a small geographic area, such as a single
building or campus, facilitating communication between connected
devices within this limited area.
- Purpose and Use - Primarily used for sharing resources like files,
printers, games, and other services among multiple users within the
network.
- LANs are also instrumental in enabling software applications to be used by multiple
users simultaneously.
- Connectivity and Speed - Offer high-speed connectivity among
connected devices, usually through Ethernet or Wi-Fi.
WAN (Wide Area Network)
- Geographic Range - Spans large geographic area, often connecting multiple smaller
networks like local area networks (LANs) across cities, countries, or even continents.
- Functionality - Facilitate long-distance communication and resource sharing
between different locations of an organization or between different organizations,
allowing for efficient data exchange over vast distances.
- Connectivity Technologies - Use technologies such as leased lines, broadband
connections (like DSL), satellite communications, and cellular networks to maintain
connectivity across dispersed sites, often relying on routers and VPNs to enhance
security and manage data traffic.
LAN vs. WAN
Feature Local Area Network (LAN) Wide Area Network (WAN)

Geographic Scope Limited to a small area like a Spans large geographic areas,
building or campus such as cities, countries, or
continents

Network Devices Uses devices like switches, Uses devices like routers,
hubs, and routers modems, satellite links, and
leased lines

Transmission Media Typically uses Ethernet cables, Uses a variety of transmission

fiber optics, and Wi-Fi media including leased lines,
fiber optics, satellite links, and
cellular networks

Data Transfer Primarily focused on internal Facilitates long-distance

communication and resource communication and resource
sharing sharing between different
LANs or networks
Client-Server Model
Client-Server Model
- Architecture - Client devices request and receive services or resources
from centralized server devices.
- Roles - Clients are typically user devices like computers, smartphones, or
tablets, while servers are powerful machines that host, manage, and
provide resources such as files, applications, and databases.
- Communication - Clients communicate with servers over a network using
standard protocols, initiating requests, and receiving responses, allowing
for efficient resource sharing and management.
Client-Server Model: Common Use Cases
1. Web Services - Hosting websites and web
applications where servers handle
requests from clients' web browsers,
delivering content like HTML, images, and
videos.
2. Email Services - Managing email
communications where servers handle the
sending, receiving, and storage of email
messages accessed by client devices.
3. File Sharing - Centralized file storage and
management, allowing clients to upload,
download, and collaborate on documents
and other files.
Client-Server Model: Pros and Cons

Pros Cons

Centralized Management - Easy to Single Point of Failure - If the server fails,

manage, monitor, and update resources clients may lose access to services and
from a central location. resources.

Data Consistency - Ensures data Dependence on Central Server - Clients

consistency as all clients access the same are dependent on the central server for
data from the server. access to resources.

Security - Easier to enforce security Server Overload - Servers can become

policies and manage user access. overloaded if too many clients make
requests simultaneously.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model
- Architecture - The peer-to-peer (P2P) model is a decentralized network
architecture where each device, known as a peer, has equal status and can act
as both a client and a server.
- Roles - In a P2P network, peers share resources directly with each other without
the need for a central server, distributing the workload and resources among all
connected devices.
- Communication - Peers communicate directly over the network, initiating and
responding to requests for resources like files or data, facilitating efficient and
scalable resource sharing.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model: Common Use Cases
1. File Sharing - Distributing and sharing files
directly between users, such as in torrent
networks (e.g., BitTorrent), where files are broken
into pieces and shared among peers.
2. Communication Services - Peer-to-peer
messaging and calling applications (e.g., Skype)
that allow direct communication between users
without relying on a central server.
3. Blockchain and Cryptocurrencies - Supporting
decentralized ledgers and transactions in
blockchain networks (e.g., Bitcoin, Ethereum),
where each peer maintains a copy of the
blockchain and validates transactions.
Peer-to-Peer (P2P) Model: Pros and Cons

Pros Cons

Decentralization - No central server, Security Concerns - Harder to manage

reducing the risk of a single point of failure. security and enforce policies across all
peers.
Scalability - Easily scalable as new peers
can join and leave the network seamlessly. Data Consistency - Ensuring data
consistency can be challenging as data is
Cost Efficiency - Typically lower setup and distributed.
maintenance costs as no dedicated servers
are required. Performance Variability - Performance can
vary widely depending on the peers'
Privacy - Direct communication can capabilities and network conditions.
enhance privacy by avoiding central
servers.
Thin Client
- lightweight computing device that
relies on a central server for
processing power, storage, and
application management
- featuring minimal local hardware and
software capabilities
Thick Client
- a computing device that performs
the majority of processing tasks
locally
- can run applications independently,
store data locally, and operate even
without continuous network
connectivity to a central server
Thin Client vs. Thick Client

Feature Thin Client Thick Client

Processing Power Low; relies on server for High; processes tasks

processing. locally.

Storage Minimal local storage; High local storage capacity.

depends on network storage.

Dependency Highly dependent on network Operates independently of

connectivity. network connectivity.

Maintenance Easier and cheaper; updates More complex and costly;

and management are requires individual
central. management
Network Topologies
1. Bus Topology
2. Star Topology
3. Mesh Topology
4. Hybrid Topologies
What is network topology?
- refers to the arrangement of various
elements (nodes, links, etc.) of a
computer network
- can include devices like switches,
routers, computers, and other
peripherals
Why is network topology important?
1. Efficiency - affects the network's
efficiency in terms of data transfer and
resource allocation, especially in specific
scenarios
2. Scalability - some topologies are more
scalable than others
3. Fault Tolerance - the way a network is laid
out can impact its ability to continue
operating when one or more nodes or
connections fail
4. Cost - The physical layout of a network
influences the amount of cabling and the
number of other hardware devices
required
Bus Topology
Bus Topology
1. Single Central Cable (Bus) - All network devices connect to a single central
cable, making setup simple and inexpensive, but the network is vulnerable if the
bus fails.
2. Data Transmission - Data is broadcast to all devices; each device checks if it is
the intended recipient, leading to potential data collisions and retransmissions.
3. Scalability and Performance - Adding more devices increases collision
likelihood and reduces performance, making bus topology less suitable for large
networks.
When do we use bus topology?
1. Cost-Effective - Minimal cabling and
hardware requirements reduce
costs.
2. Simple Installation -
Straightforward design allows for
quick and easy setup.
3. Ideal for Temporary Networks -
Quick deployment and teardown
make it suitable for short-term
projects and events.
Star Topology
Star Topology
- Central Hub or Switch - All devices are connected to a central hub or switch,
which manages data transmission, making the network easy to manage and
troubleshoot but vulnerable if the hub fails.
- Data Transmission - Data from any device is sent to the central hub, which then
routes it to the destination device, reducing the likelihood of data collisions.
- Scalability and Performance - Adding or removing devices is simple and does
not affect the rest of the network, making star topology highly scalable and
maintaining good performance.
Why do we use star topology?
1. Easy Troubleshooting and
Maintenance - Central hub simplifies
isolation and resolution of network
issues.
2. Scalable Networks - Simple to add
or remove devices without
disrupting the network.
3. Low Collision Risk - Central hub
manages data traffic, reducing the
chance of collisions.
Mesh Topology
Mesh Topology
- Interconnected Devices - Each device is connected to multiple other devices,
creating multiple paths for data transmission, which enhances redundancy and
reliability.
- Data Transmission - Data can take several possible paths to reach its
destination, reducing the chance of network failure and improving fault
tolerance.
- Scalability and Performance - The network is highly scalable and can handle
high traffic volumes efficiently, but it can be complex and expensive to set up
due to the extensive cabling and hardware required.
Why do we use mesh topology?
1. High Reliability and Redundancy -
Multiple connections ensure network
availability even if one path fails.
2. High Traffic Environments - Efficient
handling of high data volumes with
multiple paths for data transmission.
3. Fault Tolerance - Essential for
networks requiring robust fault
tolerance, such as data centers or
military communications.
Hybrid Topologies
Hybrid Topologies
1. Combination of Multiple Topologies - Hybrid topologies integrate two or more
different network topologies, such as star, bus, and mesh, to leverage the
strengths and mitigate the weaknesses of each individual topology.
2. Enhanced Flexibility and Scalability - By combining various topologies, hybrid
networks offer greater flexibility in design and can be more easily scaled to
accommodate growing or changing network requirements.
3. Improved Performance and Reliability - Hybrid topologies can optimize network
performance and reliability by using the most appropriate topology for different
sections of the network, ensuring robust data transmission and fault tolerance.
Cloud Computing
1. What is cloud computing?
2. Public Clouds
3. Private Clouds
4. Benefits & Drawbacks of Cloud Computing
What is cloud computing?
- Technology that allows users to
access and use computing
resources such as servers, storage,
databases, networking, software,
and analytics over the internet (the
cloud)
Public Clouds
- a type of cloud computing service provided by third-party providers over the
public internet

Key Characteristics of Public Cloud

1. Accessibility - Services are accessible to the general public, including individuals,
businesses, and organizations, over the internet.
2. Scalability and Flexibility - Users can easily scale resources up or down based on
demand, and pay only for what they use, providing flexibility and cost efficiency.
3. Managed by Providers - The cloud service provider is responsible for the
maintenance, management, and security of the infrastructure, relieving users
from the need to manage physical hardware.
Private Clouds

- a type of cloud computing that is dedicated to a single organization

Key Characteristics of Private Cloud

1. Exclusive Access - The cloud infrastructure is dedicated to a single organization,

providing enhanced control and privacy over data and applications.
2. Customization and Control - Organizations can tailor the cloud environment to meet their
specific needs and regulatory requirements, maintaining greater control over the
infrastructure.
3. Enhanced Security - Private clouds often offer higher levels of security and compliance,
as the infrastructure is not shared with other organizations, reducing the risk of
unauthorized access.
Cloud Computing Advantages
1. Scalability - Easily scale resources up or down based on demand, ensuring
optimal performance and cost-efficiency.
2. Cost Efficiency - Pay only for the resources you use, reducing the need for
significant upfront capital investment in hardware.
3. Accessibility - Access data and applications from anywhere with an internet
connection, facilitating remote work and collaboration.
4. Reliability - Benefit from high availability and disaster recovery options,
ensuring minimal downtime and data protection.
Cloud Computing Disadvantages
1. Security Concerns - Storing data off-premises can raise issues about data
privacy and security vulnerabilities.
2. Downtime Risks - Dependence on internet connectivity and cloud provider
stability can lead to potential service outages.
3. Limited Control - Reduced control over the infrastructure and software, as they
are managed by the cloud provider.
4. Compliance Challenges - Ensuring compliance with industry regulations and
standards can be more complex in a cloud environment.
Transmission Media
1. Wired vs. Wireless Networks
2. Copper Cables
3. Fiber Optic Cables
4. Fiber Optic vs. Copper
5. Radio Waves
6. WiFi
7. Microwaves
8. Satellite Transmission
9. Comparison of Wireless Transmission Media
Wired Networks: Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Faster connection, higher bandwidth Requires physical cables

Less time waiting, less latency, fewer Can be difficult to install and manage
delays
Limited mobility for connected devices
More reliable, stable connection
Higher installation and maintenance
Less susceptible to issues with costs
distance/walls/interference

More secure
Wireless Networks: Advantages and Disadvantages

Advantages Disadvantages

Mobility and convenience Slower speeds compared to wired

Easy installation Higher latency

Scalable Less stable connections

Cost-Effective for Large Areas Susceptible to interference

Reduced Physical Infrastructure Security risks

Limited range
Copper Cables
Copper Cables

Advantages Disadvantages

Cost-effective Limited bandwidth compared to fiber

Easy to install and manage Susceptible to electromagnetic

interference
More reliable, stable connection
Heavier and bulkier than fiber
Less susceptible to issues with
distance/walls/interference Shorter lifespan due to oxidation

More secure Security risks (can be tapped easily)

Reduced signal intensity over distance

Fiber Optic Cables
- Uses glass or plastic fibers
- Transmits data as light signals
- High-speed data transmission
- Superior performance and
reliability
Fiber Optic Cables

Advantages Disadvantages

High bandwidth and speed Higher initial cost

Low loss of signal strength over long More difficult and expensive to install
distances
Specialized equipment required for
Immune to electromagnetic interference splicing and termination

Lightweight and thin Less flexibility for bending

Higher security (difficult to tap) Limited availability in some areas

Fiber Optic vs. Copper
Feature Fiber Optic Cables Copper Cables

Bandwidth High Moderate

Speed Very high Lower compared to fiber

Interference Immune to electromagnetic Susceptible to electromagnetic

interference interference

Weight and Size Lightweight and thin Heavier and bulkier

Security Higher security (difficult to tap) Lower security (easier to tap)

Cost Higher initial cost Cost-effective

Signal Loss Low (suitable for long distances) High (more signal loss over
distance)
WiFi
- Wireless networking technology
- Uses radio waves to provide internet
access
- Allows devices to connect without
physical cables
- Commonly used in homes,
businesses, and public spaces
- Enables mobility and convenience
for connected devices
Microwaves
Advantages Disadvantages

High bandwidth Susceptible to weather conditions (rain,

fog)
Capable of long-distance
communication Requires line-of-sight between
transmitters
No need for physical cables
Potential for signal interference
Quick deployment
High initial setup cost
Less affected by physical obstructions
Limited flexibility in network expansion
Suitable for remote and difficult terrains
Requires careful alignment and
maintenance
Satellite Transmission
Satellite Transmission

Advantages Disadvantages

Global coverage High latency due to long signal travel

distance
Ideal for remote and rural areas
Expensive to launch and maintain satellites
Can provide connectivity to mobile users
(e.g., ships, planes) Susceptible to weather conditions (rain fade)

Reliable communication in disaster Limited bandwidth compared to terrestrial

situations networks

Supports a wide range of applications (e.g., Signal interference and degradation

TV, internet, GPS)
Requires specialized ground equipment
Quick deployment over large areas
LAN Hardware
1. Servers
2. Switches
3. Network Interface Cards
4. Wireless Network Interface Cards
5. Wireless Access Points
6. Cables
7. Bridges
8. Repeaters
9. Routers
10. Ethernet
11. CDMA
12. Bit Streaming
Servers
- Servers are computers that supply
resources, data, or services to client
computers over a network.
- Computers become servers when
they run a computer program that
allows them to interact with a
network
- Common Roles - They host
websites, manage emails, store files,
and run applications.
Switches
Connect multiple devices within
the same network, directing
data packets between them
based on their MAC addresses to
facilitate communication and
resource sharing.
Network Interface Cards (NICs)
Hardware components that connect
computers to a network, enabling
communication with other networked
devices
Wireless Network Interface Cards (WNICs)
Hardware components that enable
computers to connect to wireless
networks, such as Wi-Fi
Wireless Access Points (WAPs)
Wireless access points
(WAPs) create wireless local
area networks (WLANs) by
connecting to wired
networks and projecting
Wi-Fi signals, extending
network range and ensuring
consistent coverage in larger
areas.
Cables
Bridges
- a device that connects different parts of a network, helping them work together
as one
- links two or more network segments, allowing devices on these segments to
communicate as if they were on the same network
- help manage data flow by checking the destination of data packets and deciding
whether to forward or block them, reducing network congestion and improving
performance.
- Types - Common types of bridges include:
- Transparent Bridges: Common in Ethernet networks, they forward data
without altering it.
- Wireless Bridges: Connect wired networks wirelessly, useful for linking
networks in different locations.
Repeaters

- repeaters are devices used to extend

the range of a network by amplifying
and retransmitting signals
- takes a weak or corrupted signal from
one segment of the network,
amplifies it, and retransmits it at a
stronger and clearer level.
- used in both wired and wireless
networks to extend the reach of the
network
Routers
Routers
Routers (Part 1)
1. Receiving Packets: When you send an email from your computer, the data is
broken into packets. These packets are sent to the router, which also receives
packets from the internet and other devices in your office.
2. Finding Destinations: The router examines each packet's IP address to
determine its destination. For example, if you're accessing a website, the router
checks the IP address of the website to know where to send your request.
3. Forwarding Packets: After identifying the destination, the router forwards the
packets to their intended locations. If you’re accessing a website, the router
sends the request packets to the website’s server. When the server responds,
the router ensures the response packets are delivered back to your computer.
4. Assigning IP Addresses: Each device in your office network gets a unique
private IP address from the router. This ensures that data sent and received
within the network reaches the correct device.
Routers (Part 2)
5. Maintaining a Routing Table: The router keeps a routing table that it constantly updates.
This table helps the router efficiently direct packets to their destinations by the most
optimal paths.
6. Efficient Pathfinding: The router finds the best route for data packets to travel,
minimizing delays and improving network speed.
7. Address Management: The router maintains a table of MAC (hardware) and IP (network)
addresses to keep track of which device is connected where, ensuring accurate delivery of
data.
8. Public IP Address: The router gives your entire office network a single public IP address,
which is used to communicate with external networks (like the internet).
9. Gateway and Firewall: The router acts as a gateway between your office network and the
internet, performing protocol conversions if needed. It also functions as a firewall,
protecting your network from unauthorized access and threats.
Ethernet
- Ethernet is a protocol suite.
- Used for data transmission over
wired/cabled network connections.
- Utilizes Carrier Sense Multiple
Access/Collision Detection (CSMA/CD).
- Data is transmitted in frames.
- Each frame includes a source and
destination address (IP/MAC address).
- Frames contain error checking data for
resending damaged frames.
Carrier Sense Multiple Access/Collision Detection
(CDMA/CS)
- CSMA/CD is a protocol for detecting and preventing collisions in a bus topology
network.
1. Before transmitting, a device checks if the channel is busy.
2. If the channel is busy, the device waits.
3. If the channel is free, the data is sent.
4. Multiple devices can be connected to the same transmission medium.
5. Two workstations transmitting simultaneously can cause a collision.
6. Upon collision detection, transmission is aborted, and a jamming signal is sent.
7. Both devices wait for a different random time before retrying.
Bit Streaming
- Bit streaming is the continuous transmission of
digital bits over a communication channel.
- Enables real-time delivery of multimedia content
like audio and video.
- Commonly used for streaming online media and
live broadcasts.
- Data is sent in a steady, uninterrupted flow.
- Receiving devices buffer data to ensure smooth
playback.
- Utilizes protocols such as HTTP Live Streaming
(HLS), Dynamic Adaptive Streaming over HTTP
(DASH), and Real-Time Messaging Protocol (RTMP).
- Aims to minimize latency, important for live
broadcasts and interactive applications.
Internet & WWW
1. World Wide Web
2. Internet
3. IP Addresses
4. URLs
5. How do URLs work?
6. DNS
7. How does DNS work?
World Wide Web (WWW)
- Global Information Network - The World Wide Web
(WWW) is a vast system of interlinked hypertext
documents and multimedia content accessed via
the internet.
- HTML and URLs - It uses Hypertext Markup
Language (HTML) for creating and structuring web
pages and Uniform Resource Locators (URLs) to
identify and locate these pages.
- Web Browsers - Users access the WWW through
web browsers, such as Chrome, Firefox, and Safari,
which retrieve and display content from web
servers.
- Hyperlinks - The WWW is characterized by
hyperlinks, allowing users to navigate between
different pages and websites seamlessly.
World Wide Web (WWW)
Internet
- Global Network of Networks - The Internet is a vast interconnected system of
computer networks that communicate using standardized protocols.
- Data Exchange - It allows for the exchange of data and information through
various services like email, file transfer, and the World Wide Web.
- Protocols - Utilizes protocols such as TCP/IP (Transmission Control
Protocol/Internet Protocol) to ensure reliable communication and data transfer.
- Infrastructure - Comprises hardware components like routers, servers, and
cables, along with software that facilitates connectivity and communication.
 WWW vs. Internet [Information vs. Infrastructure]

Aspect Internet World Wide Web

Definition Global network of interconnected System of interlinked hypertext

computer networks documents and multimedia content
accessed via the internet

Primary Components Hardware (routers, servers, cables) Web pages, HTML, URLs
and software

Protocols TCP/IP, among others HTTP/HTTPS, HTML

Functions Data exchange through various Information sharing and navigation

services like email, file transfer using web browsers

Access Tools Requires network interfaces and Accessed using web browsers (e.g.,
software (e.g., network drivers, Chrome, Firefox)
ISPs)
IP Addresses
IP Addresses
- Unique Identifier - An IP address is a unique string of numbers separated by periods (IPv4)
or colons (IPv6) that identifies each computer using the Internet Protocol to communicate
over a network.
- Two Versions - There are two versions of IP addresses: IPv4, which consists of four sets of
numbers ranging from 0 to 255, and IPv6, which is longer to accommodate more devices
with a hexadecimal format.
- Network Interface Location - It specifies the location of a device in the network, enabling
data to be sent and received accurately between devices.
- Internet Connectivity - Essential for internet access, IP addresses allow for routing of
packets across the internet and local networks, facilitating communication and data
transfer.
IP Addresses to URLs
Uniform Resource Locators (URLs)
- A URL is like the address you type into your browser. Ex: www.google.com
- A URL has a protocol, domain name, and web page/file name.
URLs and DNS (Domain Name System)
1) When you type a URL into your web browser and hit enter, it gets sent to a DNS
server.
2) A Domain Name Server checks if a URL exists in it’s list of URLs and if so, it
returns the corresponding IP address to you, the user. Your web browser then
automatically sends a request using the IP address.
3) If not, it passes the user request on to other DNS servers in the hierarchy, until
there’s a match at which point, it sends you back the IP address.
4) When it’s found, the URL is sent back to the original DNS server and then the
user’s web browser to make the request.
The DNS Hierarchy
- DNS servers are a common resource,
regulated by the global, non-governmental
Internet Corporation for Assigned Names
and Numbers (ICANN), Internet Engineering
Task Force (IETF), and World Wide Web
Consortium (W3C)
- DNS servers are operated and manages by
ISPs (Internet Service Providers), Domain
Name Registrars (GoDaddy etc.)
- The DNS system has no fixed number of
DNS servers globally, but it is a massive
network of servers operated
collaboratively.
IP Addresses
1. IP Address Formatting (IPv4 vs. IPv6)
2. Subnetting
3. IP Address Assignment
4. Public vs. Private IP Addresses
5. Static IP Addresses vs. Dynamic IP Addresses
 IP Address Formatting (IPv4 vs. IPv6)
Aspect IPv4 IPv6

Address Length 32-bit address length, providing 128-bit address length, offering a
approximately 4.3 billion unique vastly larger address space, enough
addresses to assign billions of addresses to
every person on the planet

Address Format Addresses are depicted in decimal Addresses are written in

format, separated by dots (e.g., hexadecimal, separated by colons
192.168.1.1) (e.g.,
2001:0db8:85a3:0000:0000:8a2e:0
370:7334)

Security Security is dependent on IPSec support is built into the

applications protocol, promoting better security
practices by default
IP Address Formatting (IPv4 vs. IPv6)
Subnetting
Subnetting is a method
used in networking to
divide a single network
into multiple smaller,
manageable networks
What information do we need?
Original Network IP and Subnet Mask: New Subnet Mask:

● e.g., 192.168.1.0/24 ● Determined based on the number

● (Subnet Mask: 255.255.255.0) of subnets needed
● e.g., /27 (Subnet Mask:
Number of Subnets Needed:
255.255.255.224) for 8 subnets
● e.g., 8 subnets
The Process
Let's say you have a network Divide the Network:
192.168.1.0/24 and you want to divide it
into 4 subnets. ● The new subnet mask is /26
(255.255.255.192).
Determine the Subnet Requirements:
● Calculate the subnets:
● You need 4 subnets. ○ Subnet 1: 192.168.1.0/26
Calculate the Subnet Mask: ○ Subnet 2: 192.168.1.64/26
● The original subnet mask is /24 ○ Subnet 3: 192.168.1.128/26
(255.255.255.0). ○ Subnet 4: 192.168.1.192/26
● To get 4 subnets, you need 2 additional
bits (since 2^2 = 4).
● Add these bits to the original mask: /24 +
2 = /26.
Calculating Subnet Addresses
Network IDs and
Subnet Masks
Subnetting: Advantages
1. Improves LAN Security - Prevents unintended data reception, limits
exposure if a device is compromised, and restricts access to specific
segments.
2. Enhances Network Management: Isolates faults more efficiently,
simplifying network troubleshooting and management.
3. Facilitates Network Expansion: Allows for a greater range of IP addresses,
supporting logical and efficient network growth.
4. Boosts Network Performance: Reduces congestion and localizes
communications within subnets, minimizing overall network traffic.
IP Address Assignment - Static vs. Dynamic IP Addresses

Feature Public IP Addresses Private IP Addresses

Definition IP addresses automatically Fixed IP addresses manually

assigned and rotated by a assigned and remain
DHCP server. constant unless changed
manually.

Address Assignment Addresses will change with Fixed, providing consistent

each connection to a router network configuration.

Security Reduced security risks due Increased risk as the IP

to changing IP addresses, address remains constant,
which can deter some types potentially making it a more
of network attacks. consistent target for attacks.
Public vs. Private IP Addresses
Feature Public IP Addresses Private IP Addresses

Definition IP addresses used on the internet, IP addresses used within private

routable globally. networks, not routable on the
internet.

Accessibility Accessible from any network across Only accessible within a local or
the internet. private network.

Purpose To identify unique devices globally To allow internal network devices to

for internet communication. communicate with each other
without using global address space.

Security More exposed to external threats Generally more secure from

unless protected by adequate external threats as they are not
security measures. directly reachable from the
internet.
Random Hardware
1. Modems
2. Public Switched Telephone Network (PSTN)
3. Dedicated Lines
4. Cell Phone Network
Modems
Modems
Function: Modems convert digital data into analog signals for transmission over communication lines,
and vice versa.
Purpose: Enable internet connectivity by linking local networks to Internet Service Providers (ISPs).
Types:
● Dial-up: Uses telephone lines for internet, offers lower speeds.
● DSL: Utilizes telephone lines without disrupting voice services, provides moderate speeds.
● Cable: Uses cable TV lines for higher-speed internet.
● Fiber Optic: Delivers very high-speed internet via fiber optic cables.
Interfaces: Connects to computers via Ethernet or USB, and may also provide Wi-Fi connectivity.
Additional Features: Can include integrated routers, firewalls, Wi-Fi access points, and VoIP support
Public Switched Telephone Network
Public Switched Telephone Network
Definition: PSTN refers to the traditional circuit-switched network for telephone
communications.
Function: Facilitates voice communications and data transmission across the world via
interconnected networks of public telephone operators.
Technology: Uses analog signal transmission for voice communication and digital signaling for
setting up and disconnecting calls.
Infrastructure: Comprises telephone lines, fiber optic cables, microwave transmission links,
satellites, undersea telephone cables, and cellular networks.
Dedicated Lines
Dedicated Lines
Definition: Dedicated lines are exclusive communication pathways reserved for specific data, voice, or
video traffic between fixed locations.
Types:
● Leased Lines: Permanent fiber or copper cable connections between two points, not shared with
others.
● T1/E1 Lines: High-capacity lines typically used by businesses for reliable data and voice transmission.
● ISDN: Integrated Services Digital Network lines that simultaneously transmit voice, video, and data.
Benefits:
● Reliability: High uptime due to dedicated usage.
● Consistency: Predictable performance without fluctuations in speed or quality.
● Security: Enhanced security since the line is not shared with other users.
Applications:
● Used by businesses for secure, high-speed internet access, data transfer, and VoIP.
● Ideal for organizations requiring constant, high-capacity network access such as data centers and
large enterprises.
Costs: Generally more expensive than shared connections due to the dedicated infrastructure and
maintenance required.
Cell Phone Networks
Cell Phone Networks
Definition - Cell phone networks are wireless communication systems that enable mobile
phones to connect and communicate over radio frequencies.
Components:
● Cell Towers: Transmit and receive signals to and from mobile devices.
● Base Stations: Manage the radio interfaces and network traffic.
● Mobile Switching Center: Coordinates calls, texts, and data connections.
Technology:
● GSM, CDMA: Primary technologies for voice and data transmission.
● LTE, 5G: Advanced standards providing higher data speeds and network efficiency.
Infrastructure:
● Consists of interconnected cell sites equipped with transmitters and receivers to cover
specific geographic areas.
A-Level Questions