Islamic University of Technology
Biomedical Engineering
ME 4873
Lecture 02
Introduction to Musculoskeletal System
M Nasim
Musculoskeletal System
❖ To learn basic anatomy and properties of various
components of human musculoskeletal system
❖ To understand how the functions and properties of soft
tissues influence human physical capacity and limitations
❖ To understand how muscles contract
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Musculoskeletal System
❖ Organ system that provides human to physically move using
the muscles and skeletal system
❖ Muscular system + Skeletal system
❖ Bones are connected each other at the joints by ligaments
or cartilage.
❖ Skeletal muscle is attached to bones by tendons
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Components
❖ Connective tissues
▪ Bones
▪ Ligaments
▪ Tendons
▪ Fascia
▪ Cartilage
❖ Muscles
❖ Joints
❖ Nerves
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Connective Tissues
❖ Function
▪ Provide support
▪ Transmit forces
▪ Maintain the structural integrity
of body parts
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Connective Tissues
❖ Two types of fibers
▪ Collagen fibers: high tensile strength
(45 to 125 N/m2), resistant to
deformation, close to mild steel!
▪ Elastic fibers: low tensile strength
Notes: Proportion of the two types influence
mechanical properties of connective tissues
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Connective Tissues
❖ Two types of fibers
▪ Collagen fibers: high tensile strength (45 to 125 N/m2),
resistant to deformation, close to mild steel!
▪ Elastic fibers: low tensile strength
Notes: Proportion of the two types influence mechanical properties of
connective tissues
Tensile strength is a measurement of the force
required to pull something such as rope, wire,
or a structural beam to the point where it
breaks.
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Ligaments and Tendons
❖ Function
▪ Ligaments
o connect bone to bone
o provide stability at joints
o guide joint motion and prevent excessive
motion
▪ Tendons
o attach muscle to bone
o transmit tensile loads from muscle to
bone, producing joint motion
http://www.aviva.co.uk/health-insurance/home-of-health/medical-
centre/medical-encyclopedia/entry/musculoskeletal-system-disorders/
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Ligaments and Tendons
❖ Structure
▪ Connective tissues, similar in structure and function.
▪ Percentage of collagen fibers: Tendons > Ligaments
▪ Percentage of elastic fibers: Ligaments > Tendons
▪ Collagen fibers are organized in parallel bundles in tendons,
but densely packed in ligaments
▪ Sparsely vascularized → slow to heal
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Ligaments and Tendons
❖ Factors affecting the biomechanical properties of tendons and
ligaments
▪ Aging: decreased strength during aging.
▪ Pregnancy: decreased strength at the end of pregnancy
▪ Physical activity increases strength and immobilization decreases
the strength
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Ligaments and Tendons
❖ Occupational injury concerns
▪ Direct trauma: lacerations, contusions
▪ Indirect trauma: overload, overuse
❖ Tendon strain
▪ Stretching or tearing of muscle-tendon
units
▪ Injury from excessive muscle contraction
force
❖ Ligament sprain
▪ Stretching or tearing of ligaments
▪ Injury from excessive joint motion http://www.aviva.co.uk/health-insurance/home-of-health/medical-
centre/medical-encyclopedia/entry/musculoskeletal-system-disorders/
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Connections through Ligaments
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Bone
❖ Function
▪ Protect internal soft organs
▪ Provide muscle attachment sites
▪ Provide rigid kinematic links
▪ Facilitate muscle action and body
movement
▪ Support the body
▪ Store minerals and fats
▪ Act for blood cell formation
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Bones on the Human Body
❖ The skeleton has 206 bones
❖ Two basic types of bone tissue
Compact bone
(also called Cortical or Dense bone)
• Homogeneous
Trabecular bone
(also called Cancellous or Spongy
bone)
• Small needle‐like pieces of bone
• Many open spaces
Courtesy of http://www.teachpe.com/anatomy/bone_structure.php
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Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape
Bones are longer than Flat , curved (skull,
they are wide (arms, legs) Sternum)
Usually square in shape, Irregular- odd shapes
cube like (wrist, ankle) (vertebrae, pelvis)
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings
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Bone
❖ Mechanical Behavior
▪ Strength: Compression > Tension > Shear
o Various loading modes
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Bone
❖ Major occupational injury concern
▪ Fracture
o Types of fracture
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Joints
❖ Joints are formed by two or more bones that are connected by
thick tissues.
❖ The bone ends are covered with cartilage to prevent bone-to-
bone contact.
❖ Function
▪ Provide stability and mobility
❖ Types of Joints
▪ Fibrous
▪ Cartilaginous
▪ Synovial
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Joints
❖ Types of Joints
▪ Fibrous: bone-to-bone, immovable (e.g. skull).
https://infogr.am/joints-1942570831
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Joints
❖ Types of Joints (continued)
▪ Cartilaginous: bone-to-bone, slightly movable (e.g. vertebral
discs).
https://infogr.am/joints-1942570831
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Cartilaginous Joints
❖ Intervertebral disc
▪ Between adjacent vertebrae
in the vertebral column
▪ Function
o Bears and distributes loads
o Restrains excessive motion
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Joints
❖ Intervertebral disc
▪ Between adjacent vertebrae
in the vertebral column
▪ Function
o Bears and distributes loads
o Restrains excessive motion
▪ Structure
o Nucleus pulposus: incompressible fluid in the core
o Annulus fibrosus: outer covering composed of layers of fibrocartilage.
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Joints
❖ Types of Joints (continued)
▪ Synovial: indirect connection of
bones by a joint capsule, freely
movable (e.g. knee, elbow,
shoulder).
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Joints
❖ Synovial Fluid
▪ Synovial fluid is present in the capsules of all
articulated joints
▪ Function
o Lubricates contact surfaces within
synovial joints and tendon sheath
o Reduces friction
▪ Work-related concern
o Prolonged static postures (standing or holding
objects for long time) with minimal movement
can hinder lubrication and nutrition to cartilage
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Joints
❖ Cartilage
▪ Function
o Absorb shock, distribute loads
o Prevent direct wear on bones by allowing relative movement of
opposing joint surfaces with minimal friction
▪ Structure and Behavior
o Viscoelastic
o No nerves and blood vessels
o Nutrition supplied through diffusion
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Types of
Synovial Joints
A: Plane joint
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Types of Synovial Joints
A: Plane joint
1.Nonaxial joint
2.Allows only gliding movement
3.Example: wrists, ankles, etc.
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings,
Courtesy of http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/Chapter7-Zoo145.htm, http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plane_joint
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Types of Synovial Joints
B: Hinge joint
1.Uniaxial joint
2.Allows rotation;
3.Examples: elbow and knee
joints.
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings, Courtesy of http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/Chapter7-Zoo145.htm
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Types of Synovial Joints
C: Pivot joint
1.Uniaxial joint
2.Allows rotation;
3.Examples: elbow and ankle
joints.
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings, Courtesy of http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/Chapter7-Zoo145.htm
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Types of Synovial Joints
d: Condyloid joint
1.Biaxial
2.Allows movement in two planes
3.Examples: Wrist joint, etc.
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings, Courtesy of http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/Chapter7-Zoo145.htm
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Types of Synovial Joints
e: Saddle joint
1.Biaxial
2.Allow movement in the sagittal
and frontal planes
3.Example: Carpometacarpal joint
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings, Courtesy of http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/Chapter7-Zoo145.htm
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Types of Synovial Joints
f: Ball and Socket joint
1.Multiaxial
2.Rotation
3.Examples: Shoulder joint,
Hips joint
Copyright © 2003 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Benjamin Cummings, Courtesy of http://classroom.sdmesa.edu/eschmid/Chapter7-Zoo145.htm
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The Muscle
Muscles
• The human body is
comprised of 324
muscles
• Muscle makes up 30-
35% (in women) and
42-47% (in men) of
body mass.
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The Muscle
Muscles
• The human body is
comprised of 324
muscles Produce movement or tension
• Muscle makes up 30- Generate heat
35% (in women) and
42-47% (in men) of Muscle cells are excitable
body mass.
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Muscle properties
Contractility Extensibility
•Ability
of a muscle to •Muscle can be stretched to its
shorten with force normal resting length and
Muscle beyond to a limited degree
Excitability Elasticity
•Capacityof muscle to •Ability of muscle to recoil
respond to a stimulus to original resting length
after stretched
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Three types of muscle
▪ Skeletal muscle (Voluntary muscles)
o Connected to bone by tendons
o Generating movement and maintaining posture
▪ Smooth muscle (Involuntary muscles)
o Walls of internal organs
o Not under conscious control
▪ Cardiac muscle (Involuntary muscles as well)
o Found in heart
o Not under conscious control
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Function
▪ Provide strength and protection to the skeleton by distributing
loads and absorbing shock
▪ Maintain joint posture (static work)
▪ Control relative motion of body segments (dynamic work)
❖ Unique property
▪ Active tissues
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Structure
▪ Connective tissues
▪ Muscle nerve
▪ Muscle fibers
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Structure
▪ Connective tissues
o Provide a pathway for nerves
and blood vessels.
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Structure
▪ Muscle Nerve
o The neuromuscular system
connects muscles and
nerves, which control body
movements and functions.
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Muscle fiber
▪ Myofibril
o Sarcomere
✓Consists of thick filaments
(myosin) and thin filaments
(actin)
✓All sarcomeres contract
simultaneously when a
muscle fiber contracts.
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Motor unit
▪ Functional unit of the muscle.
▪ Individual muscle fiber is innervated by a
motor neuron axon https://www.t-nation.com/training/secret-to-motor-unit-recruitment
▪ Motor neurons are nerve cells that transmit
information from the nervous system (brain
and spinal cord) to voluntary muscles.
▪ Single motor neuron + innervated muscle
fibers
▪ When a motor unit is activated, all of its
fibers contract.
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Mechanism of muscle
contraction
▪ Sliding Filament Model (Huxley,
1974)
▪ Interaction and sliding of the
filaments relative to each other.
Sarcomer
e
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Terminology
▪ Isometric contraction: Static positions;
muscle does not change length (zero velocity)
▪ Isotonic contraction: Dynamic; constant
muscle force throughout exertion
o Concentric contraction: lifting an object
o Eccentric contraction: lowering an object
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Terminology
▪ Isokinetic contraction:
constant velocity exertion
▪ Isoinertial contraction:
work against a constant load
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Skeletal Muscles
❖ Terminology
▪ Agonist muscles:
muscles which exert the intended
torque when contracted
▪ Antagonist muscles:
muscles which oppose the intended
torque when contracted
▪ Synergistic muscles:
muscles which work together to produce
the intended torque
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Definition
▪ Intermediate-term (months/years) effects of body activity upon
the nerves, muscles, joints, and ligaments.
❖ Approach to Reducing Musculoskeletal Disorders
▪ Written program
▪ Employee involvement and training
▪ Medical management
▪ Program evaluation
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Main Occupational Risk Factors
▪ Repetition/duration
▪ Joint deviation
▪ Force
▪ Vibration
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Repetition/duration
▪ 30 second rule
o A job is repetitive if the basic cycle time is <30 seconds.
o https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfGs2Y5WJ14
▪ Short duration: <1 hour/day
▪ Moderate duration: 1 – 2 hour/day
▪ Long duration: >2 hour/day
▪ Self-repairing
o The more time the better
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Joint Deviation
▪ An abnormal alignment or movement pattern of a joint.
▪ Often due to muscle imbalance, ligament damage, joint
degeneration, or deformity.
▪ Commonly seen in conditions like arthritis, repetitive strain
injuries, or neuromuscular disorders.
▪ Ideally, joint deviation should be zero.
▪ Express in relative as well as absolute terms.
▪ Posture affects joint deviation.
▪ Minimize torque about the joints.
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Work Postures
FM
▪ Muscles create moments about joints DM
to counteract the moments created by
θ
external forces acting on the body.
L
▪ Work postures can be classified as
WB
good or bad by looking at the W
moments created by the task at each
joint: DB
W
DF
F
Large Moment + Static Posture = INJURY
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Neutral Postures
▪ Posture where stress to joints, muscles, vertebrae and
tissue is the least
o Arms at sides
o Torso, Neck upright
▪ Body is strongest and most at rest in this posture
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Non-neutral Postures
▪ Awkward or Non-awkward postures
Categories
Assessed Postures
Non- Awkward Posture Awkward Posture
Trunk Flexion1 <20° ≥20°
Trunk Lateral Flexion1 ≤20° >20°
Neck Deviation2 <30° ≥30°
Right Shoulder Deviation2 ≤60° >60°
Left Shoulder Deviation2 ≤60° >60°
1 Keyserling et al. 1992
2 Rice 1998
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Force
▪ Ideally, internal force on the joint should be low.
▪ Reduce magnitude of external force, moment arm, and
duration.
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Vibration
▪ Interferes with blood flow.
▪ Causes mechanical trauma to body.
▪ Handtool vibration increases grip forces.
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Other Risk Factors
▪ Exposure to cold temperatures
▪ Trauma outside of work
▪ Anatomical or physiological imperfections
▪ Muscle tension from psychosocial factors
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Hand/Wrist Problems
▪ In the tendons (e.g., tendonitis)
▪ In the nerves (e.g., carpal tunnel syndrome)
▪ In the neurovascular system (e.g., thoracic outlet syndrome)
▪ Example
o Carpal tunnel syndrome:
o The median nerve through the wrist
tunnel that carries tendons from the
arm to the hand becomes pinched.
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Hand/Wrist Problems
▪ Occupational risk factors
o High force
✓High grip force, pinch grips
o Mechanical stress/trauma
✓Using hand as a hammer
o Awkward postures
o Repetition
o Dynamics/motion
o Vibration
o Low environment temperature
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Hand/Wrist Problems
▪ Carpal Tunnel Syndrome
o Symptoms
✓Burning, tingling, itching numbness in the palm and the fingers
o Causes
✓Congenital
✓Traumatic (swelling)
✓Repetitive use of vibrating hand tools,
✓Repeated and/or forced hand movements
✓Excessive deviation (ulna/radial bones)
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Hand/Wrist Problems
▪ Vibration White Finger (VWF)
o Reflex construction of
capillaries and blood
vessels due to vibration
o Fingers become white and
lose sensitivity
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Shoulder/Neck Problem
▪ Tendonitis: Inflammation of a tendon
o Most common around shoulders,
elbows, knees, and wrists
▪ Tendon tears
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Shoulder/Neck Problem
▪ Thoracic Outlet Syndrome
o Compression of nerves and muscles
between neck and shoulder.
▪ Shoulder strain/sprain
o Causes
✓Muscle overuse from repetition or
static exertions
✓Excessive exertion
✓Tissue degeneration
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Shoulder/Neck Problem
▪ Occupational risk factors for shoulder disorders
o High force
✓Heavy loads
✓Loads held away from the body
o Awkward postures
✓Overhead reaches
✓Reaching behind the body
o Static loading
o Repetition
o Dynamics/motion
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Elbow Problem
▪ Tennis elbow:
o medically known as lateral epicondylitis
o Tendinitis (lateral side of the elbow)
o Causes
✓ Prolonged or repetitive extension of hand
✓ Repetitive pronation/supination
✓ Supination of gripping hand
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Elbow Problem
▪ Occupational risk factors
o Heavy lifting
o Awkward postures
✓Extreme pronation/supination
✓Prolonged flexion/extension of wrist
o Mechanical stress / Trauma
o Repetition
✓Repetitive extension
✓Repetitive pronation/supination
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Back Problems
▪ Are extremely prevalent and costly (only colds cause
more doctor visits than back pain).
▪ Include:
o Low-back pain
o Low-back impairment
o Low-back disability
o Low-back compensation
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Back Problems
▪ Low back strain/sprain
o Most common low back disorder
o Muscle strain or tendon strain due to abnormal stretch of the tissues
o Ligament sprain or tendon strain due to excessive tension load
o http://www.spine-health.com/video/lower-back-strain-video
o Causes
✓ Repetitive lifting, over flexion, sudden
movements, etc.
✓ Tissue degeneration
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Back Problems
▪ Occupational risk factors for low back disorders (LBDs)
o Heavy work
o Static work postures
o Frequent bending and twisting
o Lifting and forceful movements
o Vibration
o Pushing / pulling
o Unexpected loading
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Back Problems
▪ Origins of LBDs
o Degenerative
o Traumatic: Acute fracture
o Inflammatory: Infectious swelling
o Tumors
o Congenital
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Leg Problems
▪ Bursitis of the knee
from kneeling
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Engineering Solutions
▪ Analyze the job.
▪ Work to improve high-risk jobs first.
▪ Consider automation or mechanization.
▪ Consider job enlargement.
▪ Minimize joint deviation.
▪ Minimize force duration and amount.
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Musculoskeletal Disorders
❖ Administrative Solutions
▪ Job rotation
▪ Part-time workers
▪ Exercise
▪ Stress reduction
▪ Supports
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Mass segment of human body
Centre of gravity
(CG) of body
segments
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Mass segment of human body
Proximal side
Centre of gravity
(CG) of body
segments
Distal side
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Mass of body segment
Following Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement
Segment Centre of Mass Centre of Mass
Segment
Total Body Weight Segment length Segment length
Proximal Distal
Hand 0.006 0.506 0.494
Forearm 0.016 0.43 0.57
Upper arm 0.028 0.436 0.564
F'arm+hand 0.022 0.682 0.318
Upper limb 0.05 0.53 0.47
Foot 0.0145 0.5 0.5
Shank 0.0465 0.433 0.567
Thigh 0.1 0.433 0.567
Foot + shank 0.061 0.606 0.394
Lower Limb 0.161 0.447 0.553
Head, neck, trunk 0.578 0.66 0.34
Head, neck, arms,
0.678 0.626 0.374
trunk
Head and neck 0.081
Ref. Biomechanics and Motor Control of Human Movement by Door David A. Winter
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Mass of body segment
by Zatsiorskji and Selujanov (1979), based on athlete's data
Mass of the
segment (kg) Mass (kg)
m i = B0+B1m+B2H Height (cm)
Coefficient
Segment name B0[kg] B1 B2[kg/cm]
Head+neck 1.296 0.0171 0.0143
Hand -0.1165 0.0036 0.00175
Forearm 0.3185 0.01445 -0.00114
Upperarm 0.25 0.03012 -0.0027
Leg -0.829 0.0077 0.0073
Shank -1.592 0.03616 0.0121
Thigh -2.649 0.1463 0.0137
Trunk
Upper part of the trunk 8.2144 0.1862 -0.0584
Middle part of the trunk 7.181 0.2234 -0.0663
Lower part of the trunk -7.498 0.0976 0.04896
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