Stream Gauging

Lecture 5

Dr. Shahid Ali

National University
of Computer & Emerging Sciences DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
 Introduction
 Stream flow is the largest operation among the various hydrologic networks. The
necessity for stream gauging arises because of many reasons; streams provide water
supply for men and animals, irrigation water for plants, dilution and transport for
removal of waste, and energy for production of power. Records of stream flow are
important in each of these uses.

 Water in streams can also be a hazard. Floods cause extensive damages and
hardships. Records of flood events obtained at gauging stations serve as the basis
for the design of bridges, culverts, spillways, reservoirs, etc.
 River Stage
 River stage is a term used in stream gauging. It is the elevation of the water surface
at a specified station above some arbitrary datum.

 The zero elevation is some times taken as mean sea level but more often it is set
slightly below the point of zero in the stream. The river stage is denoted by “g”.
Fig. shows definition sketch.
Channel Control;
This is another term often used in stream gauging. It is the reach of a channel or a
channel section where there is a unique relationship between stage and discharge.
There are two types of channel control. It may be an artificial or natural one.

Artificial Control;
 It is an amended section or length of stream for measurement purposes. Examples
are weir, flumes etc. The design of an artificial control should be based on the
following considerations.

 The profile of crest should be such that a small change in discharge indicates
appreciable change in stage.
 The structure should not create undesirable disturbance in the channel above or
below the control.
 The control should have structural stability and should be permanent.
 Selection of a Gauging Site
 The conditions regarding depth of water are depending upon the physical
features of the stream on the downstream side. The relation between stage
and discharge is controlled by the physical features of the channel
downstream from the gauge site. Essential requirements for stream gauging
are:

 Permanence of control

 Opportunity to install an artificial control

 Possibility of no backwater effect from downstream tributaries or other

sources.

 Availability of a good metering station where good discharge measurement

can be made.

 Availability of a site for proper placement of stage gauge to record all

fluctuations of water level and free from debris and floating matter with
respect to the control and the metering section.
 Suitability of existing structures for use in making flood discharge
measurements, or the availability of a site for the proper placement of a cable
way for this purpose.

 There is no possibility of flow bye-passing the site in ground water or in flood

channels.

 Availability of power line or telephone lines, where needed for special

instrumentation.

 Accessibility of the site by roads, particularly during floods.

 Economic construction is possible.

 Measurement of River Stage
 The river stage is measured by two types of gauges.

 Non-recording gauges
 Recording gauges.

 Non-recording Gauges:
The non-recording gauges are of three types

 Staff gauge
 Float type gauge
 Electric tape gauge
 Staff Gauge
 Vertical Staff Gauge
The simplest way to measure river stage is by means of staff gauge. A portion of
the vertical staff gauge is immersed in the water at all times. The gauge may consist
of a single vertical scale attached to a bridge pier, or other structure that extends into
the low water channel of the stream. Figure shows a typical vertical staff gauge.
Vertical staff gauge
 Staff Gauge
 Sectional Staff Gauge
If no suitable structure exists in a location, which is accessible at all stages, a sectional staff
gauge may be used. Short sections of staff are mounted on available structures or on specially
constructed supports in such a way that one section is always accessible.
 Staff Gauge
 Inclined Staff Gauge
An alternative to the sectional staff gauge is an inclined staff gauge as shown in
the figure. Inclined staff gauge is placed on the slope of the stream bank and
graduated so that the scale reads directly in the vertical depth. The inclined staff
gauges are considered better than the sectional staff gauges due to better accuracy.
Advantages of staff gauges:

• Easily installed
• Direct reading

Disadvantages of staff gauges:

• Difficult reading when waves occur

• Not suitable for automatic data processing
• Chance of inaccurate reading. Staff gauges usually show only intervals of
decimeters and centimeters, this has often showed to be a recipe for reading the
improper meter indication.
 Float Type Gauge
 This gauge is generally used as an inside reference gauge and is installed in a
stilling well to avoid wave effects. The stilling well is 1.20 m in diameter or with
inner dimensions 1.20 m x 1.20 m. It is built on side of a bank. A pipe connects
well to river at its lowest level.
 The gauge consists of a float, graduated steel tape, counter weight and a pulley.
The pulley is grooved to accommodate the tape and mounted on a stand. An arm
extends from the stand to a point slightly beyond the tape to carry an adjustable
index, which shows the gauge reading. The index is adjusted at the initial setting
of the gauge at the site. If the adjustments to the tape readings are too large to be
accommodated by the adjustable index further adjustments can be made with the
help of a clamp connecting the tape to the float.
 A stilling well is used to damp out natural oscillations in the water surface, waves
and turbulence among other things.
 The function of the stilling well is to provide within the well an accurate
representation of the mean water level.
 The stilling well is in contact with the stream via the intake. The function of the
intake is to allow water to enter or leave the stilling well so that the water in the
well is maintained at the same elevation as that in the stream under all conditions
of flow.
 The system has to be designed in such a way that significant variations in stage
also occur within the stilling well.
Weight or electric sensors
 Electric Tape Gauge
It consists of a graduated steel tape, a cylindrical weight, a reel for the tape, a battery
and voltmeter. One terminal of the battery is attached to ground connection and the
other to one terminal of the voltmeter. The other terminal of the voltmeter is
connected through the frame reel, and tape to the weight. The weight is lowered until
it touches the water surface. This contact completes the electric circuit and produces a
signal on the voltmeter. The tape reading is then taken at the index provided on the
reel mounting. This gives river stage with respect to a datum on the site. To find stage
with respect to another datum further addition/subtraction will be required.

G
Ultrasonic water level gauges:
 The ultrasonic water level gauge has a sensor located at either a fixed point above
the water surface or a fixed point below the water surface. This sensor sends, with
high frequency, sonic waves to the water surface, the sonic waves are reflected by
the water surface and received again by the sensor. The time interval between
transmission and reception is measured, from knowledge of the velocity of sound
in air or water, as the case may be, this can be converted into a stage.

• The main advantage of the ultrasonic water level gauge with a sensor located at a
fixed point above the water surface is that the sensor does not have contact with
the water. This is especially useful for measurements in polluted water; the
ultrasonic water level gauge is for this reason often used by purification plants.

• The velocity of sound in air or water changes with density. Hence temperature
and humidity affect the accuracy of the method. Most systems correct their
measurements automatically for temperature and humidity, but this is only a
partial correction. The accuracy of this sensor is about the same as the accuracy
of the diaphragm-type pneumatic gauge. The ultrasonic water level gauge is used
mainly within a stilling well
 Electronic pressure transducers:
An electrical pressure transducer has two main components: the force summing
device, which responds to the pressure (caused by the water head above the device),
and the sensor which converts the output of the force summing device into an
electrical signal.
The transducer may contain signal processing electronics, which change the low-level
sensor output into a form suitable for transmission over long distances. In all
transducers, water pressure + atmospheric pressure are measured with respect to a
reference. This reference gives the transducer a classification:
1. Vented transducer - reference to atmospheric pressure
2. Sealed transducer - reference to a fixed known pressure
Since all open channel flows are subject to atmospheric pressure, the vented gauge
type is the most suitable for application to measurements of stage. The vented gauge
incorporates a vent pipe
• Disadvantage is that for instance condensation water in the vent pipe, can cause
the transducer to become inaccurate. Sealed transducers need additional
measurement of atmospheric pressure

• For all measuring systems a regular check of equipment on the measuring site is
necessary. Suspicions about correctness of the data are never superfluous. Regular
calibration (in the field) is highly recommend.
 Bubble-type pneumatic gauge
The bubble-type pneumatic gauge is based on measurement of the pressure needed to
produce bubbles against the water pressure . A gas, mostly nitrogen or air, is blown
through a tube into the water. The pressure needed to overcome the water pressure at
the end of the tube is an indication for the water head above the end of the tube.
The bubble-type pneumatic gauge is mainly used when the location is not suitable for
a float gauge; e.g. conditions for a tower and stilling well are unfavorable.
On the other hand, for the bubble-type pneumatic gauge an airtight tube has to be laid,
which is potentially cumbersome and vulnerable.

Extreme temperature variations of the gas in the purge system will cause pressure
fluctuation.
An increase of the temperature will cause an overestimate of the real stage.
 CREST - STAGE GAUGE

A third type of stage measuring device is the crest gauge, used to obtain a record of
flood crests at sites where recording gauges are not installed. It gives the
information about maximum water level in the past.

A variety of such gauges have been devised, including small floats which rise with
the increase in stage but are restrained at the maximum level. Water-soluble paints
on bridge piers where they are protected from rain and can indicate a definite high
water mark are also in use as crest stage gauge. The piers of bridge are repainted
after a flood.
The gauge used by U.S. geological survey consists of a length of vertical pipe
containing a graduated stick and a small amount of ground cork. The cork floats, as
the water rises and some adheres to the stick at the highest level reached by water.
The stick can be removed, the crest reading recorded, the cork wiped off and the
stick replaced ready for the next reading.
 Discharge Measurements
Methods for determining discharge can be classified as;
 Velocity area method (free flow method).
 Measurement by permanent structures.
 Chemical gauging method.
 Velocity Area Method

In these methods certain instruments are used to observe, the velocity in the stream,
and the discharge is calculated from the data thus obtained. In this method the
regime of the channel is not affected. i.e. for example depth remains unaffected
when instrument is inserted in stream. Also free flow method can be employed at
any suitable section. The basic principle that Q =AV is used in this method.

This needs measurement of mean velocity of flow and the flow cross-sectional
area. The channel is divided in to sub-sections, the mean velocity and the area of
flow is measured at each sub-section and finally the total discharge is the sum
of the discharges through these sub-sections.

Q=q1+q2+q3+………………..+qn
 Finding Mean Velocity

Current meter
Pitot tube
Floats

Current Meter
A current meter is an instrument used to measure velocity of water in open channels
or streams. One of the most commonly used current meter is the Price Meter. This
type of current meter is used by U.S. geological survey. It consists of six conical
cups rotating about a vertical axis. Electric contacts driven by the cups close a circuit
through a battery and a wire of supporting cable, causes a click in headphones worn
by the operator for each 5 or 10 revolutions of cups. For shallow depths wadding
(depth measurement by rods) is done and for measurements in deep water the meter is
suspended from a cable. The meter reader is either in a boat or on a bridge. There is a
heavy weight suspended at the bottom of this cable to keep the whole family vertical.
The velocity of water is given as;
V= a + bN
Where N is the number of revolutions per second of cups and a , b are the
coefficients for a given current meter.
Price Current Meter
 Following steps are adopted to take measurements by the current meter.

(a) Measuring depth of flow (sounding)

(b) Taking reading for “N”, the revolutions per second.

(Measuring depth of flow (Sounding)

The depth is measured by a rigid rod called wading rod or by a sounding weight suspended
from a cable. The cable is controlled either by a reel fixed on a pulley or by hand line of a
bridge. The wadding rod is placed in the stream so that the base plate rests on the stream
bed and the depth of water is read on the graduated main rod.

A sounding weight (Coulomb’s Weight) is suspended below the current meter to keep it
stationary in the water. The weights offer minimum resistance to flowing water and have
sufficient weight not to be taken away by the water. Reading is taken when the weights just
touch the water surface. These are further lowered till these touch the base of the channel.
The reading of reel is taken again. The difference of these readings gives the depth of flow.
 Methods of Measuring Average Velocity

There are four alternatives for current meter readings.

• Single point Method

• Two point Method
• Multiple Point Method
• Direct Integration Method

 To decide which method should be used, the governing factors are

• How much accuracy is required?

• The time available
• The behavior of stream
Single Point Method:

The current meter is placed at 0.6 of depth to find mean velocity. This is least time
consuming method. This is done when the depth of flow is less than 1 m. The
average velocity is denoted as V=V0.6d, Where V0.6d represents velocity at 0.6 of
depth.
Two point Method:

The current meter is placed at two points. First the reading is taken at 0.2 of depth
and then at 0.8 of the depth. This is more accurate than one point method. The
average velocity is mean of the velocity at 0.2 depth and that at 0.8 depth.

V= (V0.2d +V0.8d)/2

Multiple Point Method:

In this method current meter is placed at different points. Velocity at each point is
measured and then mean of these velocities is taken. This method is although
accurate but is very time consuming.
Direct Integration Method:

This method is same as that at No. (3). In this method it is essential that the worker
should be an experienced person. The current meter is lowered from the surface to
the bed of stream with the uniform velocity and from bed of channel to the surface
with the same velocity. The number of revolutions made by the propeller is recorded
and the dividing by time consumed in this operation gives the mean velocity directly.
The behavior of flow in channel is also an important factor. i.e. in case of unsteady
flow where the discharge is changing during the measurements as that in floods etc,
we have to use the quickest method.
Pitot tube

A pitot tube can also be used for measurement of velocity in order to calculate
discharge in laboratory flumes or very small streams. However the use of pitot tube
may not be recommended for rivers due to following reason. Supporting the pitot
tube is very difficult when the channel is very wide and deep. The head generated
by a pitot tube in open channel is generally very small due to very low velocities,
and therefore discharge can not be accurately measured. The use of pitot tube may
however be recommended for estimating discharge in laboratory flumes and small
channels. The formula for calculating velocity is

V=(2gh)0.5
FLOATS:
This method consists of putting a float in the channel and noting the time and
distance covered by the float, the velocity will be equal to the distance traveled in a
unit time. i.e.

V=S/t
Where S is distance covered by float in time t.
A straight reach of the channel is to be selected where the depth is nearly uniform. Following
alternatives can be used to find average velocity.

(a) Type-1 floats: The float is kept on the surface of water, specific distance and time is noted as
mentioned earlier. The velocity of float is determined which is the velocity at the surface of water.
The mean velocity then is about 0.85 of surface velocity.

(b) Type-2 floats: Some weight is put in the water attached with a flag kept above water surface, the
string length is so adjusted so that the weight is at a depth of 0.60 of total depth. This directly gives
the mean velocity.

(c) Type-3 floats: A hollow box is provided at top. Canvas skirts are connected with stiffening
rings. The mean velocity is found by the formula.
Vm=Vo (1.012 - 0.116 d/d1)
d=Total depth d1= Clearance of lower edge of float from the bed of channel
 Processing field data and calculation of discharge
 Location of sampling points 1, 2, 3,...., n across the stream in reference to the
distance from an initial point on one of the banks. Say b1, b2, b3,.........,bn are the
distances from the initial point to the observation points 1, 2, 3,...., n

 Stream depth d, at each observation point. Say d1, d2, d3,.........,dn represent depths
of water at observation point to the observation points 1, 2, 3,...., n

 Mean stream velocity perpendicular to the cross-section at each observation

point.1, 2, 3,......, n (observation points)

With the above information being known, the partial discharge can be computed
for any partial section at location ‘i’ as qi=di Vi ( bi -1 +b i+1 )/2
Where qi = discharge through partial section i
Vi = Mean velocity at location “i”
bi = distance from initial point to location “i”
bi-1 =distance from initial point to location i-1 .
bi+1 =distance from initial point to location i+1.
di = depth of water at location “i”.
The discharge at first section 1 and last section n are calculated separately as follows.
q1=d1 V1 ( b1 +b 2 )/2

qn=dn Vn ( bn +b n+1 )/2

Q=q1+ q2+ q3+…………………….+ qn

The essential requirements for good discharge measurement are;

 Keep the current meter clean and properly oiled to reduce the friction losses.
 The stream cross-section should be sub-divided into as small sub-sectors as
possible (15-20 sub-stations). If this requirement causes verticals to be less
than 0.15 m. then increase the spacing accordingly.
 Use the average of velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 of the depth when the depth is
greater than 0.60 m otherwise take a single measurement at 0.6 times the
depth.
 Keeping the meter clean of floating materials by raising the meter out of
water to let the debris pass by.
 When using the wading rod keep it vertical and keep your feet 0.45 – 0.60
meters down stream from the meter.
 Read and record the river stage from an auxiliary staff gauge periodically
during the discharge measurement. If the stage begins to change by greater
than 5% the procedure may be speeded up by
 Decreasing the sounding time.
 Reducing the number of verticals.
 Problem

 Compute the stream flow for the measurement data given below columns 1 to 5 of table 5.1
below. Take the meter rating from equation. V=a+bN with a=0.03 and b=0.66

Solution

As V = a + bN

So V=0.03 + 0.66 N

V is in m/s and N is in revolutions/s. Using this the following calculations in columns 6 to 11 of

Table 5.1 below are made. Find the discharge using Mid-Section method.

Q=1.726 m³/s
Total area, A= 4.212 m²
Average velocity = V = (Q/A) = (1.726/4.212) = 0.41 m/sec
Average depth (hydraulic depth) “D” = AREA / TOP WIDTH = 4.212/5.10= 0.826 m
 Table 5.1 Computations for Current Meter Observations

Distance Mean Width

Depth Meter Revol- Velocity Disc-
from Time N in of sub- Area
(m) Depth utions. at point harge
bank vertical section
(m) (m) (m) (Sec) (Rev./s) (m/s) (m/s) (m) (m²) (m³/s)
(11)=
(7)= (10)=(2)
(1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6) (8) (9) (8) x
a+bN x(9)
(10)

0.60 0.30 0.18 10 50 0.20 0.162 0.162 0.60 0.18 0.03

1.20 1.05 0.84 22 55 0.40 0.294 0.384 0.60 0.63 0.242
0.21 35 52 0.67 0.474
1.80 1.56 1.26 28 53 0.53 0.379 0.432 0.60 0.94 0.404
0.3 40 58 0.69 0.485
2.70 1.89 1.5 32 58 0.55 0.394 0.460 0.60 1.134 0.521
0.39 45 60 0.75 0.525
3.30 1.32 1.15 28 45 0.62 0.441 0.472 0.60 0.792 0.374
0.27 33 46 0.72 0.503
3.90 0.66 0.39 22 50 0.44 0.320 0.320 0.60 0.396 0.127
4.50 0.24 0.15 12 49 0.24 0.192 0.192 0.60 0.144 0.028
5.10
Total 4.212 1.726
 From the data given in columns 1 to 4 of the table below find discharge.

Table Calculation of Discharge

Distance Width of
Mean
from Depth(m) sub- Area Discharge
Velocity
bank section
(m) (m) (m/s) (m) (m²) (m³/s)

0.00 0.00 1.00 0.00 0.00 0.00

2.00 0.50 2.50 2.00 1.00 2.50
5.00 2.00 3.00 4.50 9.00 27.00
8.00 2.50 3.00 6.00 15.00 45.00
11.00 2.40 3.00 6.00 14.40 43.20
14.00 1.50 3.00 4.00 6.00 18.00
17.00 1.00 3.50 2.00 2.00 7.00
21.00 0.50 2.00 1.00 0.50 1.00

Total 47.90 143.70

Q=143.7 m³/s
 Propeller type current meter

Measuring stream flow by wading

Cub and propeller current meter

Cub propellor

Wading rod
Cable way
 Discharge Structures
Permanent structures for the measurement of discharge are built at the sites where
regular discharge measurements are required. Structures built for other purposes
may also be used. i.e. spillways of dam, or a fall, or a barrage.

This may be a masonry structure built in the bed of the channel across the flow.
The height is so designed that for all possible discharges in the channel, the depth
over the sill remains the critical depth, as such a hydraulic jump must form down
stream of the structure say weir.

 Categories discharge structures

•Thin/sharp crested weirs

•Broad crested weirs
•Flumes
•Compound measuring structures
•Non-standard weirs.
 The capital cost of installing a measuring structure is much greater than the capital
cost of installing a velocity-area station but the operational costs of a structure are
very much lower.
 This is due to the calibration costs in manpower in establishing the stage-discharge
relation for a velocity-area station. The advantage, in this respect, of a standard
measuring structure is that records of discharge are obtained immediately on
completion of the installation.
 WEIR: Used to provide accurate flow measurements

50
Thin And Sharp Crested Weir
If “H” is the head over the weir just upstream of the weir, “V”, is the critical
velocity “yc” is the critical depth, on neglecting the approach velocity and applying
energy equation. (In MKS system)

Q = Cd 1.7BH1.5

Where
B = width of weir,
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge
 Coweeta
Hydrologic
Station

Rectangular Weir

56
V-Notch (Triangular) Weir
 Flume
Broad Crested Weir
 Compound structures

Under construction: Mupfure, Zimbabwe

Sebakwe river, Zimbabwe

 Compound measuring structures

Compound structures are combinations of measuring devices in one and the same
structure. This can be any combination of sharp-crested weirs, broad crested weirs
and flumes. The applied combination is usually doctored for specific reasons and
applies under specific conditions. Two main reasons can be mentioned for compound
stations:

1. The structure has to be accurate for both low and high flows. Accurate low flow
measurements need sufficient head above the structure. This is obtained by
narrowing the profile. To the contrary, flood flows would need a sufficient cross-
sectional area (width) over the structure. The ideal solution is a structure where
the cross-sectional width increases with increasing discharge. A triangular shape
of the cross-sectional area of the measuring structure fulfills this requirement.
That is the reason that for low to moderate flows the V-notches are applied.
 For constructional reasons a V-notch is not suitable for large flows. The alternative is
a stepwise increasing profile, where each step has a sharp crest. The typical lay-out
for a compound station that measures low and high flow in that case is a V-notch for
the lower stages, and a stepwise profile that takes over at higher stages. The various
sections so created can be separated by training walls. Note that the rating equation
for a compound station is also a compound of equations for the different stages.
Usually the zero stage is at the lowest notch, or the bottom of the notch in case of a
V-notch. For every stage where a next notch will have discharge the rating equation
changes with the contribution of this notch.
2. The structure needs to pass a considerable sediment load. In case of considerable sediment
loads a flume is the right solution. Flumes are not easy to construct and get easily drowned.
Combining a flume with a weir in one and the same structure provides the opportunity to pass
high flows, create more head and pass the sediment load. Stand alone large flumes have been
constructed. They can handle large flows and large sediment loads. To compensate for the poor
accuracy with low flows, a V-notch can be added, down or upstream of the flume. In general
structures placed in series (one behind the other) are referred to as composite stations. They are
not much favored, as the different stages that are measured at such a composite station are reason
for confusion. Together with the measurement of actual stages it must be clearly indicated to
which structure they apply. At some composite stations stages are measured for each structure
separately, but also sometimes the measurement of stages is combined through complicated
plumbing arrangements.
 Non-standard structures

Most non-standard structures are structures that have been developed for other
purposes than discharge measurements, but provide an opportunity to determine the
discharge. The discharge relation in that case might not have been standardized and
therefore should be carefully established. Examples of such structures are conducts,
orifices, sluices and spillways. Also a volume change of a reservoir can be used for
discharge estimation of a river or catchment. Obviously releases, seepage and
evaporation from the reservoir have to be considered. Depending on the moment
(no releases) or the timescale (hours, days) these could be negligible.
 Discharge measurement
over a spillway

Q  Cbh 3 / 2

C for circular weirs = 2.03(h / R) 0.07

C for parabolic weirs = 1.86h 0.01

Drowned condition sharp weirs

0.385
  h n 
Q  Q0 1   2  
  h1  
Q = discharge when submerged
Q0 = discharge under free-flow conditions at the same upstream head h1
h2 = tail water level, relative to the vertex of the notch
h1 = elevation of the upstream water surface relative to the vertex of the notch
n = exponent of the basic flow equation, for example 1.5 for rectangular weirs and
2.5 for V-notches
Example

Depth of water just upstream of a broad crested weir was measured to be 0.5 m in a 10m wide
channel. Find discharge. The height of weir was 0.2 m

Solution

Given Data
Head avove weir crest = H =0.5-0.2 = 0.3 m
Cd = Co-efficient of discharge = 0.60
B = Width of weir = 10 m
Q = 0.6x1.7x10x(0.3)1.5 = 1.676 m³/s

The coefficient of discharge depends on type of weir structure.

 Chemical Gauging Method (Dilution Method)

 The principle of dilution gauging is simple. Added to a constant unknown

discharge Q, is a volume of water with a known concentration . The diluted
concentration is measured downstream. The degree of dilution is a measure for
the unknown discharge Q.

 The upstream section is called the “dosing section” and down-stream end is
called sampling section.

 At the dosing section some soluble chemical salt made up to a known

concentration is fed into the stream at a measured rate. By the time the flow
reaches the sampling section the salt solution is properly mixed with the
whole flow.

 Samples of water are drawn from the sampling section from the down-stream
section and are analyzed for the quantity of salt.
 Injection Methods
(i) Sudden injection
(ii) Injection at constant rate.

Injection at constant rate

Constant rate injection is the simplest case of the dilution gauging. The injection
consists of a constant discharge Q, with concentration 1 that is added to the river
discharge Q, during a long enough time period. If on the reach L , there is sufficient
mixture, than after a certain time period a constant concentration will be measured at
the end of the reach.
The length L can be roughly determined with an experimental equation

With:
C Chezy roughness (m1/2/s
B river width (m)
a river depth (m)
 Q=q(C1 – C2 )/ (C2 – Co )

Where Co = Concentration of chemical already existing in flowing fluid of stream

NC3 q
Q = --------
C2

q = constant rate of injection of chemical

C2 = Concentration of chemical in water at sampling point
C3 = Difference in concentration at dozing and sampling point

The sampling point is determined on the basis of mixing length. Formulae

have been given by various researchers for mixing length.
 Sudden Injection

In this method a know volume “V” of the dosing solution or tracer is added to the
stream as rapidly as possible. The concentration at the sampling point rises rapidly
to a peak and then slowly diminishes. Samples are then taken at regular intervals of
time and chemical concentration is determined in laboratory. A concentration-time
curve is then drawn.

Example of a concentration wave from a sudden injection of 500 gram of salt

 V C1
Q
 C  C  dt
t2

2 o
t1

 C  C  dt
t2

2 o =area under the concentration-time curve

t1

V = Volume of injected solution

C1 = Concentration of chemical in dozing solution.
Co = Conc. of chemical already existing in stream water
C2 = Conc. of chemical in water at sampling point.
 Requirements of the tracer

• Naturally, the tracer has to dissolve in water

• The concentration of the tracer still has to be measurable after a sufficient dilution
(Q <<Q).
• No density flows may occur. Almost all solutions meet this requirement. Even
NaCl solutions do because of Q << Q possible.
• The tracer may not attach to floating sediment. Therefore the coloring agent
Rhodamine (concentration determination with colorimeter) is normally not suitable.
Only suitable is Rhodamine WT (watertracer).
• The unmarked water should have low concentrations of the tracer. This is why
NaCl is not always suitable.

Requirements of the river reach

• Within the reach no water flows into nor out of the river
• Within the reach length L the mixture has to be as good as possible.
• During the measurement steady flow (Q=constant) needs to occur
 Suitability

 This method is particularly useful when plenty of turbulence exist in the flow
and the measurement of discharge by current-meter is not feasible.
 The situation may include a weir, or a fall, a sharp bent or turbine. A reach in
which hydraulic jump is taking place, is most appropriate. In this method one
section is selected upstream and other at down stream end of the reach of
channel.

 Dilution gauging works best in strong turbulent water (and thus good mixture).
For mountain creeks this method is ideal. In fact, other methods based on
velocity measurements in mountain creeks are usually less suitable, due to the
irregular cross-sections.
 The method of dilution gauging is also very suitable for the determination of the
capacity of pumping stations
 Range and accuracy

The dilution gauging is preferably suitable for small watercourses with a lot of
turbulence as well as for pumping stations. Nevertheless, accurate measurements
were achieved with discharges up to 2000 m3/s. With precise execution the relative
error in the discharge can be in the order of 1%.
 A 30 g/l solution of a chemical was discharged into a stream at a constant rate
of 10x10-6 m3/sec. The same chemical was not found in stream water at all. The
concentration of chemical at sampling section was found to be 5000 parts per
million. Estimate the stream discharge.
Solution

Q=q(C1 – C2 )/ (C2 – Co )

q=10x10-6 m3/sec.

C1 =30g/l=0.030 g/ml

C2 =5000 parts per million = 0.005x10-6 g/ml

Co =0

Q= [10x10-6 x (0.03-5x10-9)]÷( 5x10-9 )= 60 m3/sec.

 Electromagnetic Method :

The electromagnetic gauge operates on a principle similar to that of an electric

dynamo. If a conductor of certain length moves through a magnetic field, a voltage is
generated between the ends of the conductor. In the electromagnetic gauge, the
magnetic field around the river is generated by a coil, which is installed either above
or below the river. The river is conductor in this case which moves through the
magnetic field. The movement of river water cuts the vertical component of the
Earth’s magnetic field and an electromotive force (EMF) is induced in the water that
can be measured by two electrodes. This EMF is proportional to the average velocity
in the river. The voltages generated are sensed by electrodes on either bank. The
higher is the water velocity, the greater is the voltage generated. Velocity in the entire
cross section is integrated to produce a mean velocity.
Figure shows a sketch of an electromagnetic gauging station where the coil is placed
in the bed and the magnetic field is generated in the x direction, the EMF is in the y
direction, and the stream flow is in the z direction. Faraday’s law of electromagnetic
induction relates the length of a conductor moving in a magnetic field to the EMF
generated. The measures of induced probe voltage, coil current and depth are used to
calculate flow as follows:

Flow = function of (probe voltage x depth x calibration constant/ magnetic field)

In practice, most river beds have significant electrical conductivity that will allow
electric currents to flow in the bed. From practical considerations, the induced field
will be spatially limited and electric currents flowing in the area outside the field
will have the effect of reducing the output potential. Both of the above factors have
the effect of reducing the signal and hence the voltage recorded. At an
electromagnetic gauging station, it is necessary to measure the conductivity of bed
and water.
 Electromagnetic current meter
The electromagnetic current meter employs the Faraday principle of electromagnetic
induction whereby a magnetic field (in the velocity sensor) induces an electro-
potential in a moving conductor (the water). An alternating current is passed through
a coil in the velocity probe, which in turn sets up an alternating field in the probe
head and surrounding water. Movement of water past the probe causes an electric
potential in the water, which is detected by two electrodes in the probe. This
potential is than amplified and transmitted through the connecting cable to the
display unit where the velocity signal is digitized and displayed in meters per second
at preset intervals in the range 2-60 seconds as required. Maintenance of the meter is
minimal and consists of keeping the velocity probe’s electrodes clean at all times.
Because of the principle of electromagnetic induction the meter will not operate
successfully in very low conductivity solutions.
Electromagnetic current meter
Doppler current meter
An instrument, that measures the flow velocity by means of the Doppler effect, is
the Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler or ADCP. ADCP’s are used to measure
discharges in open channels, according to the velocity-area method. There are either
downward looking ADCP’s, measuring velocity profiles from near the water surface
to the bed, or upward looking ADCP’s, installed on the bed.

The Doppler effect is a change in the observed sound pitch that results from relative motion.
Doppler shift is the changed frequency observed from a moving sound source, compared to the
stagnant situation.

ADCP’s use the Doppler effect by transmitting sound at a fixed frequency and listening to
echoes returning from sound scatters in the water. These sound scatters are small particles
(suspended load) that reflect the sound back to the ADCP. Scatters are everywhere in rivers.
They float in the water and on average they move at the same horizontal velocity as the water
(Note that this is a key assumption!). Sound scatters in all directions form scatters. Most of
the sound goes forward, unaffected by the scatters. The small amount that reflects back is
Doppler shifted.
Acoustic Doppler Current Profiler is an accurate description of how the instrument
determines flow velocities in a vertical profile:
1. Acoustic, as it uses sound waves to sense flow velocities;
2. Doppler, because it uses Doppler effect which is directly proportional to the flow
velocity;
3. Current. The ADCP needs three beams to determine the three vector components
of water flow. The four-beam configuration provides two vertical vectors that the
ADCP uses to check data integrity;
4. Profiler. The instrument measures flow velocities in a large number of points
(depth cells) in the vertical by ’range-gating’ the back scattered signal in time.

The ADCP makes a velocity profile for many depth cells, which can be from 5 cm
in height or more (depending on the frequency). Figure shows a four beam
configuration measuring in 14 cells. Each depth cell is comparable to a single
current meter. Therefore an ADCP velocity profile is like a string of current meters
uniformly spaced. Thus, we can make the following definitions by analogy:
Methods of Holding Current Meter:

(i) Measurement By Wading Rods:

The wading rod is placed in the stream so that the base of the rod rests on the stream bed and
the depth of water is read on the graduated main rod.

The wading rod is used to hold the current meter when the depth of stream is not high and the
stream section is known to be safe. For deep streams which are dangerous for wading the
current meter is held by cable having sounding weights.

When the depth is 0.45 to 0.75 m., then the top setting rod (the position of Current meter
should be at 0.6d and velocity is then found and if depth is more than 0.75 m, then at 0.2d and
0.8d the two velocities are found and the mean velocity V=( V0.2d +V0.8d) ÷ 2
 • Rating Curve
– The relationship between river stage and discharge

89
(ii) Measurement From Bridge:

We can measure the depth of water from upstream as well as down stream side of the bridge.
On the upstream side the hydraulic characteristics are usually more favorable, the approaching
drift can be seen and avoided and the stream bed is less likely to scour. On the other hand, on
the down steam side vertical angles are more easily measured in case the cable is not exactly
vertical because of the sounding lines moving away from the bridge. Moreover, the flow lines
may be straight.

The meter is suspended from a handrail of the bridge or a sounding reel supported by a bridge
board or a portable crane, the latter is most commonly used. The method of measurement of
depth and velocity is same as discussed earlier. However the current meter is not used near the
bridge piers and abutments.
(iii) Measurements from a Cable-Way:

The cable way provides a track for the operation of a cable from which an observer takes
measurement on current meter. Cable also supports the sounding reel and other necessary
equipment. The car is moved from one point to another on the cable-way by means of rollers. As
a rule of thumb the size of the sounding weight in pounds should be greater than the maximum
product of velocity and depth in the cross-section. The depth is measured by sounding reel and
the velocity is measured by current meter.

(iv) Measurement From Boat:

If the cable- way and bridge are not available and the water depth is too deep to be waded, a boat
is used. The measurement is made by first stretching the tag line across the steam and then
moving the boat at each tag to take depth and velocity measurements. When the stream is very
wide and the tag line can not be used the boat can be kept in position at the cross-section by lining
up with flags position on each end of the cross - section. The position of the boat is determined
by a transit on the stand and a standard rod held in the boat.
 STAGE AND DISCHARGE RELATIONSHIP (RATING CURVE)

The graphical curve between stage and discharge is called the stage-discharge
curve or rating curve. The rating curve is nothing but the graph giving the
relation between stage and discharge. Stage is plotted along y-axis and discharge
is plotted along x-axis. The shape of rating curve looks like parabola.

The stage discharge rating depends upon the channel control. For a permanent
control this relation may be applicable for years. It may be necessary to take at
least three discharge measurements in a week to check the rating curve because of
random shifting of the stream channel particularly during flood season.
Low Flow Rating Curve:

It is the most frequently occurring.

Intermediate Flow Rating Curve:

It is the stage between a flood and low flows.

High flow Rating Curve:

This occurs in high flood days, so is for rarely occurring situation. Because of
this, it is often represented by dotted lines and is obtained by extension of low
flow rating curve.
 Extension of Rating Curve

The most important use of the stage discharge rating curve is obtaining discharge for
any measured stage. Because of infrequency of floods it may seldom be practicable
to obtain correct rating curve for high flows. Some times due to unprecedented
floods the stage may be so high that it may not be possible to get the discharge from
the original rating curve. So we need an extension of the rating curve to obtain
discharge during high stage floods.
Special methods have to be used to extend the original rating curve to extrapolate the
discharge corresponding to the measured high stage. The most reliable method
would be the one which straightens the approximated parabolic rating curve for the
convenience of its extension.

The most commonly used methods which comply with this condition are;

 The Logarithmic Method

 A√D Method
 Slope area Method.
 The rating curve can be approximated by the formula:

Q = a (h − h0)b

Q discharge (m3/s)
h stage reading (m)
h0 stage reading at zero flow (m)
a coefficient (m2/s)
b coefficient (-)
 The Logarithmic Method:

This method is used if the cross section of the stream at the gauging station is of a
regular shape and there is no possibility of getting a number of straight lines of
varying slopes.

In general Q = a (h − h0)b
Now taking “log” on both sides

log Q = log a(h-h0)b = log a+ log (h-h0)b

log Q = log a + b log (h-h0)

The equation is the equation of a straight line with Log a being the intercept and “b” the
slope. In this equation the zero gauge height “h0” is determined by assuming the various
values of ‘h0” until log Q” when plotted against log (h-h0), forms a straight line. This straight
line can then be extended to extrapolate discharge corresponding to the measured gauge
height.
 A√D Method

This method is based on the Chezy’s formula

Q = AC√RS
where
C= roughness coefficient (Chezy’s Constant) If the stream is assumed to be a large
rectangular channel (wide channel), then
S= Slope of energy line
A= Cross sectional area R = A/P = B×y/(B+2y)
R= Hydraulic radius
(where P = Wetted perimeter)
if C√S is assumed to be constant for the station
and “D” the mean depth is substituted for “R”, For a wide channel ‘2y’ can be neglected.
only when the section is wide, then R= A/P = B×y/(B+2y) ≈ y = D
Q= K A√D
Q = K A √D or Q α A√D

Knowing the values of Q and A we can plot a graph and get a straight line, which may be
extended. Values of A for stages above the existing rating can be obtained by field
measurements and used with the extended curve for estimates of Q.
 Slope Area Method
This method of estimating high flows is by application of hydraulic principles.
Sufficient high water marks must be located along a reach of channel to determine
water surface slope at the time of peak. Cross sections of the channel may be
determined by leveling or sounding, and the area and hydraulic radius calculated.
The Chezy -Manning formula is ordinarily used to calculate discharge.

Q= A(1/n) R2/3√Sf (M.K.S)

Q= A(1.49/n) R2/3√Sf (F.P.S)

A= Area of cross section, Sf = Frictional slope

n= Manning’s Constant , R= Hydraulic Radius

The main source of error in applying this equation is in estimating the roughness
coefficient “n”. Since Q depends upon 1/n and the average value of “n” for natural
stream is about 0.035, an error of 0.001 in “n” represents about 3% in discharge.

Under the most favorable conditions an error of 10% may be expected in a slope area estimate of flow.
Example
Find discharge in a rectangular channel having Manning’s n=0.04, Sf=0.0005,
width of 5 m and depth of flow of 1.5 m.

SOLUTION
Q= A (1/n) R2/3√Sf
We have the values of
n = 0.04 &
Sf =0.0005
B=5 m and
y=1.5 m.
So we have to calculate R(hydraulic radius) R=A/P
where P= wetted perimeter

Now P=5+2x 1.5 = 5 + 3=8 m

area A=5x1.5=7.50 m2
R=A/P=7.5/8=0.94 m
Discharge Q=7.5x(1/0.04)x(0.94)0.667x(0.0005)0.5
Q=4.02 m³/s
Example
Given in Table: below is data for a station rating curve. Find the flow at 4.42 m stage, both by
logarithmic and A√D methods.
Table: Stage vs Discharge Data

A = Cross-
D = Mean Discharge 'Q'
Stage ‘g’ (m) Sectional Area
Depth (m) (m³/s)
(m²)
0.52 24.43 0.46 29
0.76 62.62 0.55 76
1.06 111.5 0.64 139
1.23 145.86 0.85 187
1.3 166.3 0.98 218
1.55 199.74 1.19 268
1.71 221.11 1.4 303
1.82 270.35 1.49 371
2.04 304.72 1.58 428
2.08 317.73 1.65 456
2.38 367.9 1.74 538
2.67 447.79 1.83 682
2.81 464.52 1.86 708
3.02 487.74 1.98 773
4.42 761.81 2.74
SOLUTION:

Logarithmic Method:

The method involves choosing trial values of ‘a’, finding logarithm of (g-a) and Q.
Then plotting Log Q against Log (g-a) as shown in Fig. The best fit line is drawn
through points for most suitable ‘a’ value. This line is extended to read required
discharge.

The calculations are shown in Table and graph is shown in Figure. The value of ‘a’
for which we obtain a straight line is 0.4 m. The discharge required is
corresponding to log (4.42-0.4) = 0.60. The value of log Q against stage of 4.42 m
is therefore 3.1 which corresponds to a discharge of = 1260 m³/s.

The value of discharge found by logarithmic method is approximated one because it

depends upon plotting accuracy and judgment of drawing best fit line. Suppose for
example if value of log Q would have been read as 3.15, the discharge value would
have been 1412 m³/s which is 12 % more than previous computed value of 1260
m³/s.
 Rating Curve

Extension of Rating Curve by Logarithmic Method

3.5

3.0

2.5

2.0
log Q

1.5

1.0

0.5

0.0
-2.0 -1.5 -1.0 -0.5 0.0 0.5 1.0
log (g-a)

a =0.3 a = 0.4 a = 0.5

 Extension of Rating Curve
Log10(g-a)
Stage 'g' Discharge
Log10Q
(m) 'Q' (m³/s) a = 0.3 a = 0.4 a = 0.5

0.52 29 1.46 -0.649 -0.906 -1.615

0.76 76 1.88 -0.335 -0.441 -0.582
1.06 139 2.14 -0.121 -0.182 -0.254
1.23 187 2.27 -0.034 -0.083 -0.139
1.30 218 2.34 -0.001 -0.047 -0.098
1.55 268 2.43 0.096 0.060 0.021
1.71 303 2.48 0.149 0.117 0.083
1.82 371 2.57 0.183 0.153 0.121
2.04 428 2.63 0.241 0.215 0.188
2.08 456 2.66 0.251 0.226 0.199
2.38 538 2.73 0.318 0.296 0.274
2.67 682 2.83 0.374 0.355 0.336
2.81 708 2.85 0.399 0.382 0.363
3.02 773 2.89 0.434 0.418 0.401
4.42 0.615 0.604 0.593
 A√D Method
The cross sectional area A and Mean Depth D are given. Value of A√D is calculated
for each stage value as shown in table. A√D is plotted against Q as shown in Fig.
The value of Q corresponding to stage in question is required discharge. For
example, for a stage of 4.42 m, value of A√D is 1261. This corresponds to 1375
m³/s. Here again an estimated discharge is found
 A = Cross-
D = Mead Discharge 'Q'
Stage 'g' (m) Sectional Area A√D
Depth (m) (m³/s)
(m²)
0.52 24.43 0.46 29 16.57
0.76 62.62 0.55 76 46.44
1.06 111.5 0.64 139 89.20
1.23 145.86 0.85 187 134.48
1.3 166.3 0.98 218 164.63
1.55 199.74 1.19 268 217.89
1.71 221.11 1.4 303 261.62
1.82 270.35 1.49 371 330.00
2.04 304.72 1.58 428 383.03
2.08 317.73 1.65 456 408.13
2.38 367.9 1.74 538 485.29
2.67 447.79 1.83 682 605.76
2.81 464.52 1.86 708 633.52
3.02 487.74 1.98 773 686.31
4.42 761.81 2.74 1261.02
 Extension Of Rating Curve by Chezy's
2000 Method
Discharge (Q m³/s)

1500

1000

500

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Value of AxSQRT(D)
 COMPONENTS OF RUN OFF:

(1) OVERLAND OR SURFACE FLOW:

When rain falling on ground attains sufficient depth, water begins flowing down slope and
establish surface channel. A route to the channel is formed. Then the water is designated as over
land flow and upon entering channel it becomes surface run off.

(2) INTER FLOW OR SUB SURFACE FLOW:

Water which infiltrates the soil may move laterally through the upper layer of the soil until it
enters a stream channel. this water is known as inter flow or sub surface flow.

(3) BASE FLOW OR GROUNDWATER FLOW:

The infiltrated water may percolate downward until it reaches the water table. This water may
ultimately discharge into the stream as groundwater flow if the water table intersects the stream
channel. this type of flow is known as Dry Weather Flow.
However, the total flow is divided into two parts depending upon the time of arrival in the stream
rather than the path of flow. They are (i) Direct runoff (DRO) (ii) Base Flow.
The direct run off is the sum of surface run off and the initial part of the inter flow and the base
flow is the sum of the ground water and the latter portions of the inter flow.
STREAM FLOW UNITS
(i) RATE OF RUN OFF:
It may be measured in cubic foot per second or cubic meter per second.
One cubic foot per second is a volume of one ft³ when collected in one
second.
The ft³/second are also called cusec or cfs. In the metric system the cubic
meter per second are also called cumec.
(ii) VOLUME RUN OFF:
Volume of flow is expressed in cubic feet, cubic meters, cubic inches and
also in Acre foot and second foot days.
SECOND FOOT DAY (SFD)
It is the volume of water collected in 24 hours (one day) at the rate of 1
cubic foot per second.
: 1 Sfd = 24 x 60x60 =86400 ft³.
The smaller unit is second foot hour i.e. volume collected in one hour at
the rate of 1cfs.
: 1 sfh = 60x60 =3600 ft³.
ACRE FOOT
If an area of one acre is converted by a uniform depth of 1ft of water.
The total volume thus collected is 1 Acre foot.
One Acre = 4840 (yards)²
: 1 Acre - foot = (4840x9)x1 = 43560 ft³
and 1 Sfd = 1.9835 Acre foot.
HECTARE METER
If an area of one hectare is covered by a uniform depth of 1m of
water. The total volume thus collected is 1 Hectare-meter.
One Hectare-meter = 104 m³
INCHES OF RUN OFF:

If a certain catchment area is having a uniform depth of 1 cm of water,

the total Run off is 1 cm for that very catchment area.

Example 5.7

What volume is represented by 3.5 cm of run off from a basin of 650

Square Kilometers. Give answer in cubic meters and Hectare-meter.

Solution

Volume = 3.5x10-2x650x106
=22.75x106 m³
=2275 Hectare-meters