The Direct Method

In this method the teaching is done entirely in the target language. The learner is not allowed to use his or
her mother tongue. Grammar rules are avoided and there is emphasis on good pronunciation.
The direct method of teaching, which is sometimes called the natural method, and is often (but not
exclusively) used in teaching foreign languages, refrains from using the learners' native language and uses
only the target language. It was established in Germany and France around 1900 and contrasts with
the grammar–translation method and other traditional approaches, as well as with C.J.Dodson's bilingual
method. It was adopted by key international language schools such as Berlitz and Inlingua in the 1970s
and many of the language departments of the Foreign Service Institute of the U.S. State Department in
2012.
In general, teaching focuses on the development of oral skills. Characteristic features of the direct method
are:

 teaching concepts and vocabulary through pantomiming, real-life objects and other visual materials
 teaching grammar by using an inductive approach (i.e. having learners find out rules through the
presentation of adequate linguistic forms in the target language)
 centrality of spoken language (including a native-like pronunciation)
 focus on question-answer patterns
Contents

Definition
Direct method in teaching a language is directly establishing an immediate and audio visual association
between experience and expression, words and phrases, idioms and meanings, rules and performances
through the teachers' body and mental skills, without any help of the learners' mother tongue[3]

Aims

1. Direct method of teaching languages aims to build a direct way into the world of the target
language making a relation between experience and language, word and idea, thought and
expression rule and performance.
2. This method intends for students to learn how to communicate in the target language
3. This method is based on the assumption that the learner should experience the new language in the
same way as he/she experienced his/her mother tongue without considering the existence of
his/her mother tongue.

Essentials

1. No translation
2. Concepts are taught by means of objects or by natural contexts through the mental and physical
skills of the teacher only.
3. Oral training helps in reading and writing listening and speaking simultaneously.
4. Grammar is taught indirectly through the implication of the situation creation. [5]

Techniques

1. Question/answer exercise – the teacher asks questions of any type and the student answers.
2. Dictation – the teacher chooses a grade-appropriate passage and reads it aloud.
3. Reading aloud – the students take turn reading sections of a passage, play or a dialogue aloud.
4. Student self-correction – when a student makes a mistake the teacher offers him/her a second
chance by giving a choice.
 5. Conversation practice – the students are given an opportunity to ask their own questions to the
other students or to the teacher. This enables both a teacher-learner interaction as well as a
learner-learner interaction.
6. Paragraph writing – the students are asked to write a passage in their own words.[4]

Nature

1. The direct method is also known as natural method. It was developed as a reaction to the grammar
translation method and is designed to take the learner into the domain of the target language in the
most natural manner.
2. The main objective is to impart a perfect command of a foreign language. The main focus being to
make the learner think in the targeted language in the same manner as the learning of his/her
mother-tongue in the most natural way.
3. In traditional language-learning, pupil participation was found to be diminished as the teaching is
perceived to be long and monotonous.

Merits

1. Facilitates understanding of language – understanding of the target language becomes easier due
to the inhibition of the linguistic interferences from the mother tongue, it establishes a direct bond
between contexts, and helps in understanding directly what is heard and read
2. Improves fluency of speech – fluency of speech results in easier writing, it tends to improve
expression, expression in writing, and it is a quick way of learning and expanding vocabulary
3. Aids reading – reading becomes easier and more pleasant, and it also promotes a habit of critical
studying
4. Improves the development of language sense
5. Full of activities, which make it interesting and exciting
6. Emphasizes the target language by helping the pupil express their thoughts and feelings directly in
target language without using their mother tongue
7. Develops listening, speaking, reading and writing
8. Increase in market for goods and services
9. Increased employment opportunities
10.Helps in bringing words from passive vocabulary into active vocabulary
11.Helps in proceeding the English language from particular to general, it bridges the gap between
practice and theory
12.Makes use of audio-visual aids and also facilitates reading and writing
13.Facilitates alertness and participation of students[4][3]

Demerits

1. Ignores systematic written work and reading activities

2. May not hold well in higher-level classes where the translation method is more suitable
3. Supports only limited vocabulary – it restricts the scope of vocabulary as not all words can be
directly associated with their meanings
4. Lacks application – the method aims at active command of a language, only the clever child can
profit by this method
5. Needs skilled teachers; e.g., most of the teachers in Indian schools have a poor command of
English
6. Does not suit or satisfy the needs of individual students in large classes
7. Inconvenient in a huge class
8. Ignores reading and writing aspects of language learning
9. Does not teach grammar systematically
 10.Time-consuming in creating real life situations
11.Less suitable for slow learners, who struggle with this method

Principles

1. Classroom instructions are conducted exclusively in the target language.

2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences are taught during the initial phase; grammar, reading and
writing are introduced in intermediate phase.
3. Oral communication skills are built up in a carefully graded progression organized around
question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and students in small, intensive classes.
4. Grammar is taught inductively.
5. New teaching points are introduced orally.
6. Concrete vocabulary is taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary is
taught by association of ideas.
7. Both speech and listening comprehensions are taught.
8. Correct pronunciation and grammar are emphasized.
9. Student should be speaking approximately 80% of the time during the lesson.
10.Students are taught from inception to ask questions as well as answer them.

Pedagogy
The key Aspects of this method are:
I. Introduction of new word, number, alphabet character, sentence or concept (referred to as an Element) :
• SHOW...Point to Visual Aid or Gestures (for verbs), to ensure student clearly understands what
is being taught.
• SAY...Teacher verbally introduces Element, with care and enunciation.
• TRY...Student makes various attempts to pronounce new Element.
• MOLD...Teacher corrects student if necessary, pointing to mouth to show proper shaping of
lips, tongue and relationship to teeth.
• REPEAT...Student repeats each Element 5-20 times.
NOTE: Teacher should be aware of "high frequency words and verbs" and prioritize teaching for
this. (i.e. Teach key verbs such as "To Go" and "To Be" before unusual verbs like "To Trim" or
"To Sail"; likewise, teach Apple and Orange before Prune and Cranberry.)
II. Syntax, the correct location of new Element in sentence:
• SAY & REPEAT...Teacher states a phrase or sentence to student; Student repeats such 5-20
times.
• ASK & REPLY IN NEGATIVE...Teacher uses Element in negative situations (e.g. "Are you
the President of the United States?" or "Are you the teacher?"); Students says "No". If more
advanced, may use the negative with "Not".
• INTERROGATIVES Teacher provides intuitive examples using 5 "w"s (Who, What, Where,
Why, When) or How". Use random variations to practice.
• PRONOUNS WITH VERBS Using visuals (such as photos or illustrations) or gestures,
Teacher covers all pronouns. Use many random variations such as "Is Ana a woman?" or "Are
they from France?" to practice.
• USE AND QUESTIONS...Student must choose and utilize the correct Element, as well as
posing appropriate questions as Teacher did.
III. Progress, from new Element to new Element (within same lesson):
A. Random Sequencing:
1. After new Element (X) is taught and learned, go to next Element (Y).
2. After next Element (Y) is taught and learned, return to practice with Element (X).
 3. After these two are alternated (X-Y; Y-X; Y-Y, etc), go to 3rd Element (Z).
4. Go back to 1 and 2, mix in 3, practice (X-Y-Z; Z-Y-X; Y-Y-Z, etc.) and continue building up to
appropriate number of Elements (may be as many as 20 per lesson, depending on student, see
B.1), practicing all possible combinations and repeating 5-20 times each combination.
B. Student-Led Limits:
1. Observe student carefully, to know when mental "saturation" point is reached, indicating
student should not be taught more Elements until another time.
2. At this point, stop imparting new information, and simply do Review as follows:
C. Review: Keep random, arbitrary sequencing. If appropriate, use visuals, pointing quickly to
each. Employ different examples of Element that are easy to understand, changing country/city
names, people names, and words student already knows. Keep a list of everything taught, so
proper testing may be done.
D. Observation and Notation: Teacher should maintain a student list of words/phrases that are
most difficult for that student. The list is called "Special Attention List"
IV. Progress, from Lesson to Lesson:
• LESSON REVIEW The first few minutes of each lesson are to review prior lesson(s).
• GLOBAL REVIEW Transition from Lesson Review to a comprehensive review, which should
always include items from the Special Attention List.
V. Advanced Concepts:
• Intermediate and Advanced Students may skip some Element introduction as appropriate;
become aware of student's language abilities, so they are not frustrated by too much review. If
Student immediately shows recognition and knowledge, move to next Element.
• Non-Standard Alphabets: Teaching Student to recognize letters/characters and reading words
should employ same steps as in above Aspect I, and alphabet variations may be taught using
Aspect III. Writing characters and words should initially be done manually, either on paper or
whiteboard.
• Country Accents: Any student at intermediate stages or higher should be made aware of subtle
variations in pronunciation, which depend on geography within a country or from country to
country.
An integral aspect of the Direct Method is varying the setting of teaching; instructors try different
scenarios using the same Element. This makes the lessons more "real world," and it allows for some
confusing distractions to the student and employs organic variables common in the culture and locale of
language use.

Historical context
The direct method was an answer to the dissatisfaction with the older grammar translation method, which
teaches students grammar and vocabulary through direct translations and thus focuses on the written
language.
There was an attempt to set up conditions that imitate mother tongue acquisition, which is why the
beginnings of these attempts were called the natural method. At the turn of the 18th and 19th centuries,
Sauveur and Franke proposed that language teaching should be undertaken within the target-language
system, which was the first stimulus for the rise of the direct method.
The audio-lingual method was developed in an attempt to address some of the perceived weaknesses of
the direct method.

Grammar-translation

Learning is largely by translation to and from the target language. Grammar rules are to be memorized
and long lists of vocabulary learned by heart. There is little or no emphasis placed on developing oral
ability.
 The grammar–translation method is a method of teaching foreign languages derived from the classical
(sometimes called traditional) method of teaching Greek and Latin. In grammar–translation classes,
students learn grammatical rules and then apply those rules by translating sentences between the target
language and the native language. Advanced students may be required to translate whole texts word-for-
word. The method has two main goals: to enable students to read and translate literature written in the
source language, and to further students' general intellectual development. It originated from the practice
of teaching Latin; in the early 1500s, students learned Latin for communication, but after the language
died out it was studied purely as an academic discipline. When teachers started teaching other foreign
languages in the 19th century, they used the same translation-based approach as had been used for
teaching Latin. The method has been rejected by scholars, and has no theoretical basis [1].

Contents

 1 Criticism of the term

 2 History and philosophy
 3 Principles and goals
 4 Method
 5 Materials
 6 Reception
 7 Influence

Criticism of the term

The overall concept of grammar-translation has been criticized due to a lack of verifiable sources that
supported the existence of such a method in the nineteenth century, or earlier.

History and philosophy

The grammar–translation method originated from the practice of teaching Latin. In the early 1500s, Latin
was the most widely studied foreign language due to its prominence in government, academia, and
business. However, during the course of the century the use of Latin dwindled, and it was gradually
replaced by English, French, and Italian. After the decline of Latin, the purpose of learning it in schools
changed. Whereas previously students had learned Latin for the purpose of communication, it came to be
learned as a purely academic subject
Throughout Europe in the 18th and 19th centuries, the education system was formed primarily around a
concept called faculty psychology. This theory dictated that the body and mind were separate and the
mind consisted of three parts: the will, emotion, and intellect. It was believed that the intellect could be
sharpened enough to eventually control the will and emotions. The way to do this was through learning
classical literature of the Greeks and Romans, as well as mathematics. Additionally, an adult with such an
education was considered mentally prepared for the world and its challenges.
At first it was believed[by whom?] that teaching modern languages was not useful for the development of
mental discipline and thus they were left out of the curriculum. [citation needed] When modern languages did
begin to appear in school curricula in the 19th century, teachers taught them with the same grammar–
translation method as was used for classical Latin and Greek. As a result, textbooks were essentially
copied for the modern language classroom. In the United States of America, the basic foundations of this
method were used in most high school and college foreign language classrooms.

Principles and goals

There are two main goals to grammar–translation classes. One is to develop students' reading ability to a
level where they can read literature in the target language. The other is to develop students' general
mental discipline. The users of foreign language wanted simply to note things of their interest in the
literature of foreign languages. Therefore, this method focuses on reading and writing and has developed
techniques which facilitate more or less the learning of reading and writing only. As a result, speaking
and listening are overlooked.

Method
Grammar–translation classes are usually conducted in the students' native language. Grammar rules are
learned deductively; students learn grammar rules by rote, and then practice the rules by doing grammar
drills and translating sentences to and from the target language. More attention is paid to the form of the
sentences being translated than to their content. When students reach more advanced levels of
achievement, they may translate entire texts from the target language. Tests often consist of the
translation of classical texts.
There is not usually any listening or speaking practice, and very little attention is placed on pronunciation
or any communicative aspects of the language. The skill exercised is reading, and then only in the context
of translation.

Materials
The mainstay of classroom materials for the grammar–translation method is the textbook. Textbooks in
the 19th century attempted to codify the grammar of the target language into discrete rules for students to
learn and memorize. A chapter in a typical grammar–translation textbook would begin with a bilingual
vocabulary list, after which there would be grammar rules for students to study and sentences for them to
translate. Some typical sentences from 19th-century textbooks are as follows:
The philosopher pulled the lower jaw of the hen.
My sons have bought the mirrors of the Duke.
The cat of my aunt is more treacherous than the dog of your uncle.

Reception
The method by definition has a very limited scope. Because speaking or any kind of spontaneous creative
output was missing from the curriculum, students would often fail at speaking or even letter writing in the
target language . A noteworthy quote describing the effect of this method comes from Bahlsen, who was a
student of Plötz, a major proponent of this method [citation needed] in the 19th century. In commenting about
writing letters or speaking he said he would be overcome with "a veritable forest of paragraphs, and an
impenetrable thicket of grammatical rules".
According to Richards and Rodgers, the grammar–translation has been rejected as a legitimate language
teaching method by modern scholars:
Though it may be true to say that the Grammar-Translation Method is still widely practiced, it has no
advocates. It is a method for which there is no theory. There is no literature that offers a rationale or
justification for it or that attempts to relate it to issues in linguistics, psychology, or educational theory.

Influence
The grammar–translation method was the standard way languages were taught in schools from the 17th to
the 19th century. Despite attempts at reform from Roger Ascham, Montaigne, Comenius and John Locke,
no other methods gained any significant popularity during this time.
Later, theorists such as Viëtor, Passy, Berlitz, and Jespersen began to talk about what a new kind of
foreign language instruction needed, shedding light on what the grammar–translation was missing. They
supported teaching the language, not about the language, and teaching in the target language, emphasizing
speech as well as text. Through grammar–translation, students lacked an active role in the classroom,
often correcting their own work and strictly following the textbook.
Despite all of these drawbacks, the grammar–translation method is still the most used method all over the
world in language teaching. This is not surprising as most language proficiency books and tests are in the
format of grammar–translation method; and hence the use of the method continues.
 Audio-lingual

The theory behind this method is that learning a language means acquiring habits. There is much practice
of dialogues of every situations. New language is first heard and extensively drilled before being seen in
its written form.

The audio-lingual method, Army Method, or New Key, is a style of teaching used in teaching foreign
languages. It is based on behaviorist theory, which postulates that certain traits of living things, and in this
case humans, could be trained through a system of reinforcement. The correct use of a trait would receive
positive feedback while incorrect use of that trait would receive negative feedback.
This approach to language learning was similar to another, earlier method called the direct method. Like
the direct method, the audio-lingual method advised that students should be taught a language directly,
without using the students' native language to explain new words or grammar in the target language.
However, unlike the direct method, the audio-lingual method did not focus on teaching vocabulary.
Rather, the teacher drilled students in the use of grammar.
Applied to language instruction, and often within the context of the language lab, it means that the
instructor would present the correct model of a sentence and the students would have to repeat it. The
teacher would then continue by presenting new words for the students to sample in the same structure. In
audio-lingualism, there is no explicit grammar instruction: everything is simply memorized in form.
The idea is for the students to practice the particular construct until they can use it spontaneously. The
lessons are built on static drills in which the students have little or no control on their own output; the
teacher is expecting a particular response and not providing the desired response will result in a student
receiving negative feedback. This type of activity, for the foundation of language learning, is in direct
opposition with communicative language teaching.
Charles C. Fries, the director of the English Language Institute at the University of Michigan, the first of
its kind in the United States, believed that learning structure, or grammar was the starting point for the
student. In other words, it was the students' job to recite the basic sentence patterns and grammatical
structures. The students were given only “enough vocabulary to make such drills possible.” (Richards,
J.C. et-al. 1986). Fries later included principles for behavioural psychology, as developed by B.F.
Skinner, into this method.

Contents

 1 Oral drills
 2 Examples
 3 Historical roots
 4 In practice
 5 Fall from popularity
 6 In recent years
 7 In popular culture
 8 Main features
 9 Techniques
 10 Emphasizing the audio
 11 Aims
 12 Advantages
 13 Disadvantages
Oral drills
Drills and pattern practice are typical (Richards, J.C. et-al. 1986):

 Repetition: the student repeats an utterance as soon as he hears it.

 Inflection: one word in a sentence appears in another form when repeated.
 Replacement: one word is replaced by another.
 Restatement: the student rephrases an utterance.

Examples
Inflection: Teacher: I ate the sandwich. Student: I ate the sandwiches.
Replacement: Teacher: He bought the car for half-price. Student: He bought it for half-price.
Restatement: Teacher: Tell me not to smoke so often. Student: Don't smoke so often!
The following example illustrates how more than one sort of drill can be incorporated into one practice
session:
“Teacher: There's a cup on the table ... repeat
Students: There's a cup on the table
Teacher: Spoon
Students: There's a spoon on the table
Teacher: Book
Students: There's a book on the table
Teacher: On the chair
Students: There's a book on the chair
etc.”

Historical roots
The method is the product of three historical circumstances. For its views on language, it drew on the
work of American linguists such as Leonard Bloomfield. The prime concern of American linguists in the
early decades of the 20th century had been to document all the indigenous languages spoken in the US.
However, because of the dearth of trained native teachers who would provide a theoretical description of
the native languages, linguists had to rely on observation. For the same reason, a strong focus on oral
language was developed.
At the same time, behaviourst psychologists such as B.F. Skinner were forming the belief that all
behaviour (including language) was learnt through repetition and positive or negative reinforcement. The
third factor was the outbreak of World War II, which created the need to post large number of American
servicemen all over the world. It was, therefore, necessary to provide these soldiers with at least basic
verbal communication skills. Unsurprisingly, the new method relied on the prevailing scientific methods
of the time, observation and repetition, which were also admirably suited to teaching en masse. Because
of the influence of the military, early versions of the audio-lingualism came to be known as the “army
method.”[1]

In practice
As mentioned, lessons in the classroom focus on the correct imitation of the teacher by the students. The
students expected to produce the correct output, but attention is also paid to correct pronunciation.
Although correct grammar is expected in usage, no explicit grammatical instruction is given.
Furthermore, the target language is the only language to be used in the classroom. Modern
implementations are more lax on this last requirement.

Fall from popularity

In the late 1950s, the theoretical underpinnings of the method were questioned by linguists such as Noam
Chomsky, who pointed out the limitations of structural linguistics. The relevance of behaviorist
psychology to language learning was also questioned, most famously by Chomsky's review of B.F.
Skinner's Verbal Behavior in 1959. The audio-lingual method was thus deprived of its scientific
credibility and it was only a matter of time before the effectiveness of the method itself was questioned.
In 1964, Wilga Rivers released a critique of the method in her book, The Psychologist and the Foreign
Language Teacher. Subsequent research by others, inspired by her book, produced results which showed
explicit grammatical instruction in the mother language to be more productive. [citation needed] These
developments, coupled with the emergence of humanist pedagogy led to a rapid decline in the popularity
of audiolingualism.[citation needed]
Philip Smith's study from 1965-1969, termed the Pennsylvania Project, provided significant proof that
audio-lingual methods were less effective than a more traditional cognitive approach involving the
learner's first language.

In recent years
Despite being discredited as an effective teaching methodology in 1970, audio-lingualism continues to be
used today although it is typically not used as the foundation of a course but rather has been relegated to
use in individual lessons. As it continues to be used, it also continues to gain criticism, as Jeremy
Harmernotes, “Audio-lingual methodology seems to banish all forms of language processing that help
students sort out new language information in their own minds.” As this type of lesson is very teacher-
centered, it is a popular methodology for both teachers and students, perhaps for several reasons but
especially because the input and output is restricted and both parties know what to expect. Some hybrid
approaches have been developed, as can be seen in the textbook Japanese: The Spoken Language (1987–
90), which uses repetition and drills extensively but supplements them with detailed grammar
explanations in English.
Butzkamm and Caldwell have tried to revive traditional pattern practice in the form of bilingual semi-
communicative drills. For them, the theoretical basis, and sufficient justification, of pattern drills is
the generative principle, which refers to the human capacity to generate an infinite number of sentences
from a finite grammatical competence.

In popular culture
The fact that audio-lingualism continues to manifest itself in the classroom is reflected in popular culture.
Films often depict one of the most well-known aspects of audio-lingualism: the repetition drill. In South
Park Episode #172, Cartman applies the repetition drill while teaching a class of high school students.
In Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome, an LP record of a French lesson instructs a pair of obliging children
to 'repeat' short phrases in French and then in English.

Main features

 Each skill like listening, speaking, reading, writing is treated and taught separately.
 The skills of writing and reading are not neglected, but the focus throughout remains on listening and
speaking.
 Dialogue is the main features of the audio lingual syllabus.
 Dialogues are the chief means of presenting language items. They provide learner an opportunity to
practice, mimic and memorize bits of language.
 Patterns drills are used as an important technique and essential part of this method for language
teaching and learning.
 The language laboratory was introduced as an important teaching aid.
 Mother tongue was not given much importance, similar to the direct method, but it was not
deemphasized so rigidly.[clarification needed].

Techniques
Skills are taught in the following order: listening, speaking, reading, writing. Language is taught through
dialogues with useful vocabulary and common structures of communication. Students are made to
memorize the dialogue line by line. Learner mimic the teacher or a tape listening carefully to all features
of the spoken target language. Pronunciation like that of native speaker is important in presenting the
model. Through repetition of phrases and sentences, a dialogue is learned by the first whole class, then
smaller groups and finally individual learners.
Reading and writing are introduced in the next stage. The oral lesson learned in previous class is the
reading material to establish a relationship between speech and writing. All reading material is introduced
as orally first. Writing, in the early stages, is confined to transcriptions of the structures and dialogues
learned earlier. Once learners mastered the basic structure, they were asked to write composition reports
based on the oral lesson.

Emphasizing the audio

The theory emphasizes the listening-speaking-reading-writing order.
Listening is important in developing speaking proficiency and so receives particular emphasis. There are
strong arguments, both physiological and psychological, for combining speaking practice with training in
listening comprehension.
Speaking is effective through listening. By hearing the sounds, articulation is more accurate, with
differentiation of sounds, memorization and internalization of proper auditory sounds images.
Development of a feel for the new language gains interest for the language.
There has been practically no study or experiments to determine how much time should be taken between
listening experience and speaking practice.
Listening comprehension is most neglected in language learning. It is generally treated as incidental to
speaking rather than as a foundation for it. Texts, guides and course of study contain tests for evaluating
progress in listening comprehension, but they rarely contain specific learning materials designed for the
systematic development of this skill.
Here are some materials that can be adapted for improving listening comprehension:

 The dialogue should be presented as a story, in the foreign language, using simple language.
 The meaning of some of the new words and expressions that will appear in the dialogue should be
explained through gestures, visual aids, synonyms, etc. The idea is to teach the content in the story.
 Different role-plays can be used to present the dialogue.
 Without stopping, the dialogue can be gone through to hear how the entire conversation sounds at
normal speed.
 True and false activity can improve comprehension.
 The entire dialogue can be repeated at normal rate speed. The student can close his eyes to eliminate
distractions and increase his listening concentration.
 A listening comprehension test can be given.
 Listening comprehension practice can be given using dialogues from other courses of
study or recorded materials that contain most of the language that has previously been learned by the
students. The speaking practice would begin after listening comprehension. The students will be ready to
speak at this time. Speaking practice can proceed according to sequence.

1. Pattern practice can be based on material taken from the dialogue.

2. Mimicking can practice the dialogue itself.
3. Performance of the dialogue in front of class and at the seats with the students changing roles and
partners from time to time.
4. Dialogue can be adapted.
Memorization of techniques suggested represent an approach that will enable student to memorize larger
segments at a time and perform dialogues as a whole with more confidence. In the meantime, if teachers
are willing to use their imagination and experiment with new techniques, many ways can be found to
emphasize the audio in the method.[8]
Aims

 Oral skills are used systematically to emphasize communication.The foreign language is taught for
communication, with a view to achieve development of communication skills.
 Practice is how the learning of the language takes place. Every language skill is the total of the sets of
habits that the learner is expected to acquire. Practice is central to all the contemporary foreign
language teaching methods. With audio-lingual method, it is emphasized even more.
 Oral learning is emphasized. Stress is put on oral skills at the early year of the foreign language
course and is continued during the later years. Oral skills remain central even when, later, reading and
writing are introduced. Learners are asked to speak only what they have had a chance to listen to
sufficiently. They read only the material used as part of their practice. They have to write only that
which they have read. Strict order of material, in terms of the four skills, is followed.

Advantages

Listening and speaking skills are emphasized and, especially the former, rigorously developed.

 The use of visual aids is effective in vocabulary teaching.

 The method is just as functional and easy to execute for larger groups.
 Correct pronunciation and structure are emphasized and acquired.
 It is a teacher-dominated method.
 It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern practice, drilling, and memorization.
 The learner is in a directed role; the learner has little control over the material studied or the method
of study.

Disadvantages

 The behaviorist approach to learning is now discredited. Many scholars have proved its weakness.
[citation needed]

 It does not pay sufficient attention to communicative competence.[citation needed]

 Only language form is considered while meaning is neglected.[citation needed]
 Equal importance is not given to all four skills.[citation needed]
 It is a teacher-dominated method.
 It is a mechanical method since it demands pattern practice, drilling, and memorization over
functional learning and organic usage.
 The learner is in a passive role; the learner has little control over their learning.

The structural approach

This method sees language as a complex of grammatical rules which are to be learned one at a time in a
set order. So for example the verb "to be" is introduced and practised before the present continuous tense
which uses "to be" as an auxiliary.

Suggestopedia

The theory underlying this method is that a language can be acquired only when the learner is receptive
and has no mental blocks. By various methods it is suggested to the student that the language is easy - and
in this way the mental blocks to learning are removed.

Suggestopedia is a teaching method developed by the Bulgarian psychotherapist Georgi Lozanov. It is

used mostly to learn foreign languages.
The theory applied positive suggestion in teaching when it was developed in the 1970s. However, as the
method improved, it has focused more on "desuggestive learning" and now is often called
 "desuggestopedia".[1] Suggestopedia is a portmanteau of the words "suggestion" and "pedagogy". A
common misconception is to link "suggestion" to "hypnosis". However, Lozanov intended it in the sense
of offering or proposing, emphasising student choice.

Contents

 1 In practice
 2 Teachers
 3 Method for children (preventive Suggestopedia)
 4 Side effects
 5 Criticism
 6 Later variations
 7 References
 8 External links

In practice
Physical surroundings and atmosphere in classroom are the vital factors to make sure that "the students
feel comfortable and confident", and various techniques, including art and music, are used by the trained
teachers. The lesson of Suggestopedia consisted of three phases at first: deciphering, concert session
(memorization séance), and elaboration.
Deciphering: The teacher introduces the grammar and lexis of the content. In most materials the foreign
language text is on the left half of the page with a translation on the right half, i.e. meanings are conveyed
via the mother tongue not unlike the bilingual method.
Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads the text at a normal speed,
sometimes intoning some words, and the students follow. In the passive session, the students relax and
listen to the teacher reading the text calmly. Baroque music is played in the background.
Elaboration: The students finish off what they have learned with dramas, songs, and games.
Then it has developed into four phases as lots of experiments were done: introduction, concert session,
elaboration, and production.
Introduction: The teacher teaches the material in "a playful manner" instead of analyzing lexis and
grammar of the text in a directive manner.
Concert session (active and passive): In the active session, the teacher reads with intoning as selected
music is played. Occasionally, the students read the text together with the teacher, and listen only to the
music as the teacher pauses in particular moments. The passive session is done more calmly.
Elaboration: The students sing classical songs and play games while "the teacher acts more like a
consultant".
Production: The students spontaneously speak and interact in the target language without interruption or
correction.

Teachers
Teachers should not act in a directive way, although this method is teacher-controlled and not student-
controlled. For example, they should act as a real partner to the students, participating in the activities
such as games and songs "naturally" and "genuinely." [1] In the concert session, they should fully include
classical art in their behaviors. Although there are many techniques that the teachers use, factors such as
"communication in the spirit of love, respect for man as a human being, the specific humanitarian way of
applying their 'techniques'" etc. are crucial.[3] The teachers not only need to know the techniques and to
acquire the practical methodology completely, but also to fully understand the theory, because, if they
implement those techniques without complete understanding, they will not be able to lead their learners to
successful results, or they could even cause a negative impact on their learning. Therefore, the teacher has
to be trained in a course taught by certified trainers.
Here are the most important factors for teachers to acquire, described by Lozanov.

1. Covering a huge bulk of learning material.

2. Structuring the material in the suggestopaedic way: global-partial – partial-global, and global in
the part – part in the global, related to the golden proportion.
3. As a professional, on one hand, and a personality, on the other hand, the teacher should be a
highly regarded professional, reliable and credible.
4. The teacher should have, not play, a hundred percent expectation of positive results (because the
teacher is already experienced even from the time of the teacher training course).
5. The teacher should love his/her students (of course, not sentimentally but as human beings) and
teach them with personal participation through games, songs, classical arts, and pleasure.

Method for children (preventive Suggestopedia)

The method for Adults includes long sessions without movement, [1] and materials that are appropriate for
adults. Children, however, get impacts from "the social suggestive norms" differently, and their brains are
more delicate than those of adults. Therefore, another method with different materials should be applied
to children, which better matches their characteristics. Lessons for children are more incidental and short,
preventing the children from the negative pedagogical suggestions of Society. It is important to tell the
parents about the method and their roles – because they could influence children both negatively and
positively, depending on how they support the kids.

Side effects
Lozanov claims that the effect of the method is not only in language learning, but also in producing
favorable side effects on health, the social and psychological relations, and the subsequent success in
other subjects.

Criticism
Suggestopedia has been called a "pseudo-science". It depends, in a sense, on the trust that students
develop towards the method. Lozanov never admitted that Suggestopedia can be compared to a placebo.
He argues, however, that placebos are indeed effective. Another point of criticism is brought forward by
Baur, who claims that the students only receive input by listening, reading and musical-emotional
backing, while other important factors of language acquisition are being neglected. [5] Furthermore, several
other features of the method – like the 'non conscious' acquisition of language, or bringing the learner into
a childlike state – are questioned by critics.
Lukesch claims that Suggestopedia lacks scientific backing and is criticized by psychologists as being
based on pseudoscience.

Later variations
Suggestopedia yielded four main offshoots. The first – still called Suggestopedia, and developed in
eastern Europe – used different techniques from Lozanov's original version. The other three are
named Superlearning, Suggestive Accelerated Learning and Teaching (SALT),
and Psychopädie. Superlearning and SALT originated in North America, while Psychopädie was
developed in West Germany. While all four are slightly different from the original Suggestopedia and
from each other, they still share the common traits of music, relaxation, and suggestion.
It is important to point out that those variants of Suggestopedia mentioned above are way too far from the
original concept, and are based on the early experiments, which were left behind during the new
improvements of the method.

Total Physical Response (TPR)

TPR works by having the learner respond to simple commands such as "Stand up", "Close your book",
"Go to the window and open it." The method stresses the importance of aural comprehension. [More]
Communicative language teaching (CLT)

The focus of this method is to enable the learner to communicate effectively and appropriately in the
various situations she would be likely to find herself in. The content of CLT courses are functions such as
inviting, suggesting, complaining or notions such as the expression of time, quantity, location.

The Silent Way

This is so called because the aim of the teacher is to say as little as possible in order that the learner can
be in control of what he wants to say. No use is made of the mother tongue.

Community Language Learning

In this method attempts are made to build strong personal links between the teacher and student so that
there are no blocks to learning. There is much talk in the mother tongue which is translated by the teacher
for repetition by the student.

Immersion

This corresponds to a great extent to the situation we have at our school. ESL students are immersed in
the English language for the whole of the school day and expected to learn math, science, humanities etc.
through the medium of the target language, English.

Immigrant students who attend local schools find themselves in an immersion situation; for example
refugee children from Bosnia attending German schools, or Puerto Ricans in American schools. .

Task-based language learning

The focus of the teaching is on the completion of a task which in itself is interesting to the learners.
Learners use the language they already have to complete the task and there is little correction of errors.

(This is the predominant method in middle school ESL teaching at Frankfurt International School. The
tasks are subsumed in a major topic that is studied for a number of weeks. In the topic of ecology, for
example, students are engaged in a number of tasks culminating in a poster presentation to the rest of the
class. The tasks include reading, searching the internet, listening to taped material, selecting important
vocabulary to teach other students etc.)

The Natural Approach

This approach, propounded by Professor S. Krashen, stresses the similarities between learning the first
and second languages. There is no correction of mistakes. Learning takes place by the students being
exposed to language that is comprehensible or made comprehensible to them.

The Lexical Syllabus

This approach is based on a computer analysis of language which identifies the most common (and hence
most useful) words in the language and their various uses. The syllabus teaches these words in broadly
the order of their frequency, and great emphasis is placed on the use of authentic materials.