Ma’am Norlainie Usaman

Mindanao State University

Siawadato Community High School
Maguing Lanao del Sur

1st Semester, AY 2024-2025

LESSON 1: Origin and Structure of the Earth (Planet Earth)
1.1 How did the universe come to be?
1.2 How did the solar system form?
1.3 How did our planet come to be?

A. Important terms
a. Baryonic matter - "ordinary" matter consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons that comprises atoms, planets, stars,
galaxies, and other bodies
b. Dark matter - matter that has gravity but does not emit light.
c. Dark Energy - a source of anti-gravity; a force that counteracts gravity and causes the universe to expand.
d. Protostar- an early stage in the formation of a star resulting from the gravitational collapse of gases.
e. Thermonuclear reaction - a nuclear fusion reaction responsible for the energy produced by stars.
f. Main Sequence Stars - stars that fuse hydrogen atoms to form helium atoms in their cores;
g. light years - the distance light can travel in a year; a unit of length used to measure astronomical distance

1.1. Universe
• The universe as we currently know it comprises all space and time, and all matter & energy in it.
• It is made of 4.6% baryonic matter (“ordinary” matter consisting of protons, electrons, and neutrons: atoms, planets, stars,
galaxies, nebulae, and other bodies), 24% cold dark matter (matter that has gravity but does not emit light), and 71.4% dark
energy (a source of antigravity)
• Dark matter can explain what may be holding galaxies together for the reason that the low total mass is insufficient for
gravity alone to do so while dark energy can explain the observed accelerating expansion of the universe.
• Hydrogen, helium, and lithium are the three most abundant elements.
• Stars - the building block of galaxies born out of clouds of gas and dust in galaxies. Instabilities within the clouds eventually
results into gravitational collapse, rotation, heating up, and transformation to a protostar - the core of a future star as
thermonuclear reactions set in.
• The remaining dust and gas may end up as they are or as planets, asteroids, or other bodies in the accompanying planetary
system.
• Based on recent data, the universe is 13.8 billion years old. The diameter of the universe is possibly infinite but should be
at least 91 billion light-years (1 light-year = 9.4607 × 1012 km).

Origin of the Universe

a) Non-scientific Thought
• Ancient Egyptians believed in many gods and myths which narrate that the world arose from an infinite sea at the
first rising of the sun.
• The Kuba people of Central Africa tell the story of a creator god Mbombo (or Bumba) who, alone in a dark and
water-covered Earth, felt an intense stomach pain and then vomited the stars, sun, and moon.
• In India, there is the narrative that gods sacrificed Purusha, the primal man whose head, feet, eyes and mind became
the sky, earth, sun, and moon respectively.
• The monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam claim that a supreme being created the universe,
including man and other living organisms.
b) Steady State Model - The now discredited steady state model of the universe was proposed in 1948 by Bondi and
Gould and by Hoyle. It maintains that new matter is created as the universe expands thereby maintaining its density.
c) Big Bang Theory - As the currently accepted theory of the origin and evolution of the universe, the Big Bang Theory
postulates that 13.8 billion years ago, the universe expanded from a tiny, dense and hot mass to its present size and
much cooler state.

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1.2 Solar System

• The solar system is located in the Milky Way galaxy - a huge disc- and spiral-shapedaggregation of about at least 100
billion stars and other bodies.

• This galaxy is about 100 million light years across (1 light year = 9.4607 × 1012 km;

• The solar system revolves around the galactic center once in about 240 million years;

• The Milky Way is part of the so-called Local Group of galaxies, which in turn is part of the Virgo supercluster of galaxies;

• The periods of revolution of the planets increase with increasing distance from the Sun; the innermost planet moves fastest,
the outermost, the slowest;

•Inner terrestrial (Earth-like) planets are made of materials with high melting points such as silicates, iron, and nickel.
They rotate slower, have thin or no atmosphere, higher densities, and lower contents of volatiles - hydrogen, helium, and
noble gases.

• The outer four planets - Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus and Neptune are called "gas giants" because of the dominance of gases and
their larger size. They rotate faster, have thick atmosphere, lower densities, and fluid interiors rich
in hydrogen, helium and ices (water, ammonia, methane).

•The Nebular theory, which explains the formation of the solar system, states that the Sun and planets formed from a rotating
cloud of interstellar gases (mainly hydrogen and helium) and dust called the solar nebula.

•As the solar nebula contracted due to gravity, most of the material collected in the center to form the hot protosun. The
remaining materials formed a thick, flattened, rotating disk, within which matter gradually cooled and condensed into grains
and clumps of icy, rocky material. Repeated collisions resulted in most of the material eventually collecting into asteroid-
sized objects called planetesimals.

1.3 Earth
•Through repeated collisions and accretion (sticking together) these asteroid-sized rocky bodies combined to form the four
protoplanets that eventually became Mercury, Venus, Earth, and Mars.

•During the earlier formation of the Earth, heavier elements like iron and nickel settled down at its center, while lighter
materials occupied the surface. This gave rise to the core as the innermost layer and the crust or lithosphere as the outer rock
layer. The middle layer is the mantle.

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 Crust – the rocks found in the crust consist mostly of lighter elements such as silicon, potassium, and sodium. The
density of these rocks is about three times that of water; Oceanic crust and Continental crust.
 Mantle – a thick shell of rock surrounding the planet’s outer core, lying directly beneath the thin crust. It occupies
about 84% of Earth’s volume. It is the only one that is continually active. Mantle activity accounts for our planet’s
changing geological landscape.
 Core – mostly composed of solid iron and nickel; surrounded by the liquid iron outer core. The flowing iron and
nickel in the outer core resulted to the formation of the magnetic field that further protects the earth.

Earth: A Habitable Planet

Earth is the only planet in the solar system known to harbour life. Our planet has a molten nickel-iron core which
gave rise to an extensive magnetic field, which, along with the atmosphere, shields us from harmful radiation coming from
the Sun.
Between 4.35 and 3.8 billion years ago, Earth experienced heavy bombardment, making Erath a dangerous place for
any living thing. After the bombardment period, about 3.8 to 3 million years ago, and bodies of water have begun to form.
In addition, gaseous materials formed the atmosphere that was finally able to support able to support life on the surface.
Earth is the only place in the known universe confirmed to host life and is the only one known for sure to have liquid
water in the surface. These are reasons why planet Earth is a unique one:
(1) It has liquid water;
(2) surface or lithosphere which includes the crust and the upper mantle; and
(3) It has atmosphere that shelters it from the worst of the sun’s rays.

Earth is the only planet in the solar system that has a large amount of liquid water. About 70% of the surface of the
Earth is covered by liquid or frozen water. Because of this, Earth is sometimes called “blue planet.” Planet Earth is habitable
because it has the right distance from the sun. It is kept warm by an insulating atmosphere, and it has the right chemical
ingredients for life including water and carbon. It can provide water, oxygen, useful biological products for human, and has
suitable weather and climate.

Earth, Venus, and Mars may have similarities:

(1) They all are terrestrial planets, made of solid rocks and silicates;
(2) They all have an atmosphere;
(3) They all almost have the same time to rotate on their axes;

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(4) Earth and Mars both have water;
(5) They all have carbon dioxide; and
(6 All have landforms.

Earth, Venus, and Mars have differences:

(1) Venus has no water;
(2) Venus and Mars don’t have oxygen; and
(3) Earth has life forms.

How is planet Earth similar and different from Venus and Mars?

Scientists view Earth as a system that is composed of different parts that are interdependent from one another but are
interrelated and interact with one another. These subsystems are the geosphere, the hydrosphere, the atmosphere, the
cryosphere, and the biosphere.

Atmosphere.
• The atmosphere is the thin gaseous layer that envelopes the lithosphere.
• The present atmosphere is composed of 78% nitrogen (N), 21% oxygen (O2), 0.9% argon, and trace amount of other gases.
• One of the most important processes by which the heat on the Earth's surface is redistributed is through atmospheric
circulation.
• There is also a constant exchange of heat and moisture between the atmosphere and the hydrosphere through the hydrologic
cycle.

Lithosphere.
• The lithosphere includes the rocks of the crust and mantle, the metallic liquid outer core, and the solid metallic inner core.
•The primary driving mechanism is the Earth's internal heat, such as that in mantle convection.

Biosphere.
• The biosphere is the set of all life forms on Earth.

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• It covers all ecosystems—from the soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, and from the plankton-rich ocean
surface to the deep sea.
• For the majority of life on Earth, the base of the food chain comprises photosynthetic organisms. During photosynthesis,
CO2 is sequestered from the atmosphere, while oxygen is released as a byproduct. The biosphere is a CO2 sink, and therefore,
an important part of the carbon cycle.
• Sunlight is not necessary for life.

Hydrosphere.
• About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean water
• Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: two-thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining one-third is present in streams, lakes,
and groundwater.
• The oceans are important sinks for CO2 through direct exchange with the atmosphere and indirectly through the weathering
of rocks.
• Heat is absorbed and redistributed on the surface of the Earth through ocean circulation.

Each subsystem may be independent from one another but are interconnected through a biogeochemical cycle. An
example of the biogeochemical cycle is the carbon cycle.

As shown in this figure, three of the subsystems participate in the carbon cycle. One of these is the geosphere, which
serves as the habitat for plants, animals, and other living organism that make up the biosphere. When these life-forms die,
they decompose. Animal bodies decay and are deposited into the ground; whereas plant remains turn into coal which are
later harnessed as fuel for combustion. Combustion emits CO2 which is released in the atmosphere. The CO2 in the
atmosphere is used by plants for photosynthesis, which produces the oxygen needed by animals.