CELL
• A cell is the structural and fundamental unit of life.
• It represents the smallest structural and functional entity of living organism.
• All organisms are made up of cells. They may be made up of a single cell (unicellular), or many
cells (multicellular).
Introduction to Cell Structure
● Cells are the basic units of life ...
They are Classified as prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells (membrane bound cells).
CELL STRUCTURE
1. Cell Wall
It is made up of cellulose, hemicellulose and pectin. The cell wall is present exclusively in plant cells. It
protects the plasma membrane and other cellular components.
2. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane)
The cell membrane is the outer covering of a cell within which all other organelles, such as the cytoplasm
and nucleus, are enclosed. It separates the cell from the external environment. The cell membrane is
present in all the cells. It is a semi-permeable membrane.
3. Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is a thick, clear, jelly-like substance present inside the cell membrane. Most of the chemical
reactions within a cell take place in this cytoplasm. The cell organelles such as endoplasmic reticulum,
mitochondria, ribosomes, are suspended in this cytoplasm.
4. Nucleus
The nucleus contains the hereditary material of the cell, the DNA. It sends signals to the cells to grow,
mature, divide and die. The nucleus is surrounded by the nuclear envelope that separates the DNA from
the rest of the cell.
5. Cell Organelles
Cells are composed of various cell organelles that perform certain specific functions to carry out life’s
processes. Some of the cell organelles are endoplasmic reticulum, golgi apparatus, mitochondria etc.
1. Nucleus: The control center of the cell that contains DNA and regulates gene expression.
2. Mitochondria: Known as the powerhouse of the cell, it produces energy in the form of ATP through respiratio
3. Ribosomes: Small structures that synthesize proteins by translating genetic instructions.
4. Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER):
A network of membranes; Rough ER has ribosomes and helps in protein synthesis, while Smooth ER is involve
lipid synthesis and detoxification.
5. Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for transport inside or outside the cell.
6. Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes to break down waste materials and cellular debris.
7. Vacuoles: Storage organelles that hold water, nutrients, or waste. Plant cells have a large central vacuole.
8. Cytoplasm: A jelly-like substance where cell organelles are suspended and cellular reactions occur.
9. Cell Membrane (Plasma Membrane): A semi-permeable membrane that controls the movement of substance
and out of the cell.
10. Centrosome (with Centrioles): Helps in organizing microtubules during cell division in animal cells.
Functions
1. Respiration: Converts glucose into ATP for energy.
2. Protein Synthesis: Translates genetic information into proteins.
3. Storage and Processing: Synthesizes, modifies, and transports molecules.
4. Cellular Communication: Signals between cells via various molecules.
5. Waste Management: Breaks down and recycles cellular waste.
6. Cell Division: Replicates cells for growth, repair, and reproduction.
7. Movement: Supports cell movement and shape changes.
What are Stem Cells?
Stem cells are special cells in the human body that have the unique ability to develop into different
types of cells. They can divide and renew themselves over a long time and have the power to repair or
replace damaged tissues. Because of this, they play a crucial role in healing and regeneration. Scientists
believe stem cell therapy may help treat serious diseases like paralysis and Alzheimer’s.
Types of Stem Cells
1. Embryonic Stem Cells
These stem cells come from embryos. They are pluripotent, meaning they can turn into any cell type in
the body.
Subtypes:
Totipotent Stem Cells – Can become any type of cell, including the placenta.
Pluripotent Stem Cells – Can become any body cell (except placenta).
Multipotent Stem Cells – Can become a few related types (e.g., blood cells).
Oligopotent Stem Cells – Can turn into a few specific cells (e.g., myeloid cells).
Unipotent Stem Cells – Can only become one type of cell but still divide (e.g., muscle stem cells).
2. Adult Stem Cells
These are found in mature tissues and organs, like the bone marrow. They help in repairing the tissues
where they are found. For example, hematopoietic stem cells in bone marrow are used to treat blood
cancers.
3. Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells (iPSCs)
These are man-made stem cells created in labs by reprogramming adult cells into embryonic-like stem
cells. They are useful for:
Studying diseases
Testing new drugs
Understanding development
4. Mesenchymal Stem Cells (MSCs)
These are found in connective tissues (stroma) around organs. They can develop into:
Bone cells
Fat cells
Cartilage cells
They are used to treat various diseases depending on their source.
Applications of Stem Cells
1. Tissue Regeneration
Used to grow organs or tissues like skin, kidneys, or liver.
Helps in healing burns and injuries through skin grafting.
2. Treatment of Cardiovascular Diseases
Scientists have used stem cells to grow blood vessels in mice.
These vessels started functioning like normal ones in just two weeks.
3. Brain Disease Treatment
Stem cells can help treat Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s.
They can replace damaged brain cells and support brain function.
4. Treatment of Blood Disorders
Hematopoietic stem cells are used to treat:
o Leukemia
o Sickle cell anaemia
o Immunodeficiency disorders
These cells help rebuild the blood system by producing RBCs and WBCs.
Real-Time Health Applications (MQP Focus)
Stem cells are actively being used in modern medicine to:
Replace damaged tissues (e.g., heart, liver, skin)
Rebuild blood systems after chemotherapy
Regenerate nerve cells for treating spinal injuries or brain disorders
Improve organ transplant success
Develop personalized drug testing models using iPSCs
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are large biomolecules (macromolecules) that play a vital role in storing and transmitting
genetic information in living organisms.
🔹 What Are Nucleic Acids?
Nucleic acids are found in all living cells.
They serve as the information storage system of the cell.
There are two main types:
o DNA – Deoxyribonucleic Acid
o RNA – Ribonucleic Acid
These molecules are made up of smaller units called nucleotides.
🔹 Structure of a Nucleotide
Each nucleotide consists of three components:
1. Nitrogenous Base (e.g., Adenine, Thymine, Cytosine, Guanine, Uracil)
2. Pentose Sugar (a 5-carbon sugar – either deoxyribose in DNA or ribose in RNA)
3. Phosphate Group
🔹 Functions of Nucleic Acids
1. Information Storage
DNA stores genetic information in the form of specific nucleotide sequences.
This genetic code contains the instructions for:
o Building proteins
o Regulating cellular processes
2. Transmission of Genetic Information
During cell division, DNA is copied and passed to daughter cells.
This ensures inheritance of traits from one generation to the next.
3. Protein Synthesis
RNA plays a major role in protein production through a process called translation.
RNA types involved:
o mRNA – Carries genetic message
o tRNA – Brings amino acids
o rRNA – Forms the ribosome
4. Energy Transfer and Metabolism
Special nucleotides like ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) act as:
o Energy carriers in cells
o Key molecules in metabolic reactions and redox processes
5. Immune Response
Foreign nucleic acids (like viral RNA or double-stranded RNA) can:
o Be detected by the immune system
o Trigger production of antiviral proteins to fight infections
6. Diagnostic and Therapeutic Applications
Nucleic acids are used in medical testing and treatments:
o DNA/RNA-based diagnostics (e.g., COVID-19 RT-PCR test)
o Gene therapy and mRNA vaccines
