Unit 1: Sentences

1.1 Phrases and Clauses

A phrase is a group of words that doesn’t contain a subject and a verb. A phrase cannot
make sense standing alone. This means that phrases cannot make sentences.

E.g. in the park--- there is no subject telling us “who is in the park?” and there is no verb
telling “what was done in the park?”

E.g. 2. For every patient in the hospital----- “who did something for every patient”-the
subject and “what was done for every patient”-the verb are not mentioned.

A clause
A clause is a group of words that contain a subject and a predicate. A clause can be a
sentence on its own or part of a sentence. Consider the following sentence.

I saw him while he was opening the door.

The first part of the sentence is a main clause and can stand as a full sentence. The second
part of the sentence is a subordinate clause; it cannot stand on its own because of the
inclusion of the conjunction while.

Types of clause
Independent Clause and Dependent Clause:

Independent Clause. An independent clause is a group of related words that has both a
subject (actor) and verb (action) and makes sense to us without needing any additional
information. Therefore, an independent clause is also known as a simple sentence. It is not
just part of a thought, but is complete on its own.

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When combined with phrases or dependent clauses, independent clauses form the basis of
compound and complex sentences. Alone, an independent clause expresses one main
complete thought.

1. Dependent Clause—has a subject and verb and a dependent word (subordinate

conjunction). A dependent clause expresses only part of an idea, and relies upon some other
information in the sentence for complete meaning (hence the term "dependent").
We usually use dependent clauses in sentences to express thoughts that are additional or
accessory to our main thought in the sentence.

Example: While Daniel was driving.

This clause does have a subject (Daniel) and a verb (was driving), but it does not express a
complete thought. We still need more information to understand the whole idea. The writer
did not tell us what happened while Daniel was driving.

Look at these two versions of the same idea:

Examples: The dog barked all night. Because the dog barked all night

The first sentence is complete, but the second sentence is not because it does not tell us the
result of the dog’s barking. We still need more information to understand the whole idea.

Both clauses, While Daniel was driving and because the dog barked all night,

The above groups of words contain subjects and verbs, but do not express complete
thoughts; therefore, both are dependent clauses.

The following lists of words are commonly used subordinate conjunctions and relative
pronouns. These words are clues to help you identify and write dependent clauses. It may
be easier for you to remember these words as “Dependent Words” because one of these
words always appears as the first word of a dependent clause. In other words, if a group of
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words that has a subject and a verb begins with one of these subordinate conjunctions or
relative pronouns (dependent words), the clause is a dependent clause.

A dependent clause begins with a subordinator such as when, while, if, that, or who.

Subordinate Conjunctions (also called “Dependent Words”)

after although since whenever as so that when

even though as if though where provided that because
unless whether whereas except until while than what
before that in order that once (meaning “if” or “when”) if why

Look at the following sentence, which one is the main clause?

1. As soon as I woke up, I made the coffee.______________________________

Activity 1. Underline the main clause in the following sentences.

1. Since he has no any pen he writes with a pencil.

2. I will come on Monday if it does not rain.

3. She takes a cup of milk every morning because it has been prescribed by a doctor.

4. When they go to church they take the Bible with them.

5. Though he is rich he does not spare even a coin for the poor.

6. We don’t give much time for grammar when we learn English.

7. If you press the play-button the tape will play.

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8. As he entered the room he found a body lying on the floor.

9. Unless you tell me your address you won’t get any room.

10. I am very happy that you won the race.

Summary
This section has tried to introduce you to the type of clauses. Let’s now sum up by stating
the important points covered. A phrase is a group of words without a subject or a predicate.
A clause contains a subject and a predicate. There are different types of clauses as shown
below.

Types of Clauses

Clauses are the main building blocks of sentences. There are two kinds of clauses:
independent and dependent.

 An independent clause can stand alone, but it can also be joined to another
independent clause by a coordinating conjunction—and, but, or, nor, neither, yet, for, so—
or a semicolon.
Eg. The traffic was even worse on the way home, so I closed my eyes and went to sleep.
(two independent clauses joined by so)
 A dependent clause begins with a relative pronoun—who, which, that, what, whoever,
whichever, whatever—or a subordinating conjunction, such as when, before, after, since, or
although.
Eg. Although music was blaring out of the cars and drivers were honking their horns, I slept
the whole way home. (Dependent clause introduced by although).

Activity 1

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In the space provided, label the word or groups of words as follows: IC (independent
clause), DC (dependent clause), P (phrase). You may refer to the list of subordinate words
and relative pronouns above to help you.

______1. before the storm ______11. despite the blizzard

______2. Henry who is a sailor ______12. if he goes

______3. he gave a dazzling performance ______13. since she is rich

______4. at the party in the old house ______14. in the spring

______5. millions have cable television ______15. on the beach

______6. while she was playing golf

______7. when she took her seat

______8. nearly every American drives a car

______9. beyond the blue horizon

______10. after the clock struck

Activity 2

Read the clauses below. If the clause expresses a complete thought, place an IC (for
Independent Clause) next to it. If the clause does not express a complete thought, place a
DC (for Dependent Clause) next to it. Be sure to look at the first word of the clause to
determine if the clause is dependent or independent. For all that you mark “DC,” add
information to make the clause a complete sentence.

_____________1. Although the day was bright and sunny.

____________ 2. Because she is so vain and conceited.

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____________ 3. I believe in ghosts.

____________ 4. When we reach our destination.

____________ 5. He completed his work.

____________ 6. If the recession ever ends.

____________ 7. Before the play starts.

____________ 8. The cat climbed the oak tree.

____________ 9. While Anne was driving east.

____________ 10. She received an “A” in English.

Types of sentences
The Sentence

The standard definition of a sentence is that it is a group of words containing a subject and a
predicate and expressing a complete thought. But for this definition to be helpful, you must
be able to recognize a subject and a predicate and understand what is meant by “a complete
thought.”

Subject and predicate

A sentence has a subject (what or whom the sentence is about) and a predicate. The
predicate tells what the subject does or is or what is done to the subject (for example, The
books were left outside). The simple subject is a noun or pronoun. The complete subject is
this noun or pronoun and the words that modify it. The simple predicate is a verb or verb
phrase (for example, has walked, will have walked). The complete predicate is the verb or
verb phrase and the words that modify or complete it.

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In the following example, man is the simple subject. The angry old man in pyjamas is the
complete subject. Stood is the verb; stood on the porch is the complete predicate.

The angry old man in pyjamas stood on the porch.

Expressing a complete thought

In addition to having a subject and predicate, a sentence must be able to stand on its own. It
can’t depend on something else to express a complete thought. Look at the following
examples. He jumped.

This is a grammatically complete sentence, though perhaps not an interesting one. It has a
subject (he) and a predicate (jumped). It expresses a complete thought—you know what
happened. You might want to know more about the person—who he is or why he jumped,
for example. You might want to know more about the jump itself—when it occurred, how
high it was, and so on. But the basic action is complete: He jumped.

The next example is an incomplete sentence. It still has a subject (he) and a predicate
(jumped), but the presence of When keeps this group of words from being a complete
thought: What happened when he jumped?

When he jumped.

The following sentence is still an incomplete sentence. Now, you know something about
where he jumped, but the thought is still incomplete: What happened when he jumped high
into the air?

When he jumped high into the air.

The next example is a complete sentence again. The question “What hap- pened when he
jumped?” has been answered: he looked as if he were flying. Even if the phrase high into
the air were to be deleted, the thought would be complete.
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When he jumped high into the air, he looked as if he were flying.

Grouping Sentences in terms of structure and function

1. Functional classification of sentences

According to their functions in our daily communication, sentences can be classified into
four. These are declarative or Assertive, interrogative, imperative, and exclamatory

A. Declarative sentence (a statement): it makes a sentence and ends with a period or

full stop.

Example: - The house will be built.

For expressing your weekend routines (Declarative)

I walk to university with my friend in the morning.

I study with my friends.
I wake up at 1 o’clock at the week end.
My classmate and I eat lunch in a cafeteria.
I prepare dinner after school at 11:30.
B. Interrogative: It asks a question and ends with a question mark.

Example: How do you find your teacher/instructor?

Who are you studying with?
How do you find your teacher/instructor?
What materials do you offer me to study at home?
Where is your accounting book?
Can you give me your English handout?

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C. Exclamatory: an exclamatory sentence shows sudden or strong feeling and ends with

an exclamation mark.
Example: The master is attacking!
Fantastic, we finished our assignment!
I don’t know what happened here!
What a smart girl she is!
Wow! You’re so beautiful!
Oh, I didn’t see you come in!

D. Imperative: It gives a command.

Example: (Abebe), call the police

Respect your Teacher.
Turn off the Mobiles.
Bring your hand out.
Stop side talking.
Be on time.
Note: Sometimes the subject of an imperative sentence (you) is understood
Example: Look at this (you, look at this).

Activity 1.
A. Identify declarative, interrogative, and exclamatory sentences by recognizing
appropriate end marks.
1. Which of these is a declarative sentence?
a. Will you go to the store with me? c. I am a student at Rush Strong School.
b. Wow, you did a great job!
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2. Which of these is an interrogative sentence?
a. You won the prize! b. Can you play basketball? c. He has blonde hair and blue eyes.

3. Which of these is an exclamatory sentence?

a. You are a third grade student. b. What a beautiful day! c. What is your address?
B. Please put the correct punctuation on the following sentences. Punctuation means
periods, exclamation points, and question marks.
4. Maria is a student at our school ______________
5. Who is your teacher __________
6. What a wonderful book __________
7. Do you like chewing gum______________
8. Samson, try the other door._______________
9. You won______________________
10. Please hand me that book________________

Activity 2. Read the following short text and underline sentence as declarative,
interrogative, or exclamatory.

First Day of Third Grade

On the first day of school, I meet my teacher. My teacher’s name is Mrs. Genet. She is so
nice! We talked about the rules and she asked many questions. These are some of the
questions she asked our class. What would you like to learn this year? Are you excited
about third grade? What is your favorite thing about school? What are some of the things
you are interested in? After answering these questions we began reading a book by Beverly
Clearly. I loved the book! I was very interested in the main character. She hated cursive!
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Then we had circle time and talked about some of the things we will learn in third grade this
year. I really enjoyed the first day of school!
Activity 3
A. Read the following sentences and circle the correct letter of your choice.
1. Which one is a declarative sentence?
a. Where are you going after school? b. Use a number two pencil.
c. I love taking tests! d. This is easy.
2. Which one is an exclamatory sentence?
a. Put your name on your test. b. When are we going to get another English lesson?
c. I love Chris Brown! d. The pen is blue.
3. Which one is an interrogative sentence?
a. Where is the restroom? b. This is the restroom.
c. Let me go. d. I need to use the restroom!
4. Which one is an imperative sentence?
a. Tell him that you like him. b. I have to clean my room.
c. Where were you last night? d. We won the game!
5. What is the difference between a declarative and imperative sentence?
a. A declarative sentence has no subject. b. An imperative sentence has no predicate.
c. An imperative sentence has no subject. d. A declarative sentence has no predicate
B. Read the following sentences. Circle the letter that identifies the type of sentence.
1. This classroom is green.
a. Declarative b. Interrogative c. Exclamatory
2. Who is the principal of your school?
a. Declarative b. Interrogative c. Exclamatory
3. Wow, you did a great job!
a. Declarative b. Interrogative c. Exclamatory

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 2. Structural Classification of a sentence
As you know, in order to form a sentence in English, you must have two components, a
subject and a verb. Needless to say, however, almost all English sentences consist of more
than a subject and a verb, and often you will find multiple subjects and verbs in a single
sentence. Depending upon the number and kind of clauses they contain, sentences are
divided into four kinds. The four basic kinds of sentences in English are simple, compound,
complex, and compound-complex. This section will help you learn the four basic sentence
types in English. We’ll start with the simplest and move through the most complicated.

1. Simple Sentence:

In English, the most basic sentence will have both a subject and a verb and will express a
complete thought. Of course, we often add elements to a sentence in order to provide more
detail. For instance, we might add adjectives or adverbs or different types of phrases.
Below you will see a very simple sentence, just a subject and verb.

Freshwater boils at 100 degrees Celsius at sea level.

Freshwater boils at 100 degrees and freezes at 0 degrees Celsius.

Freshwater and salt water do not boil and do not freeze at the same temperatures.

Notice that the second sentence has two verbs, boils and freezes. This is called a compound
verb. The third sentence has both a compound subject and a compound verb. All three
examples are simple sentences because they have only one clause. Let’s look at other
examples

The boy runs. (boy = subject and runs = verb)

The boy runs for the high school track team. (same sentence, but We’ve added a
prepositional phrase, “for the high school track team”)

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The boy runs very slowly. (same sentence, but now we’ve added two adverbs, “very”
and “slowly”)

The tall boy runs. (same sentence, but now we’ve added the adjective, “tall”

Wanting to join a sport’s team, the boy runs for the high school track team. (same
sentence, but now we’ve added the participial phrase, “wanting to join a sport’s team”
and the prepositional phrase, “for the high school track team)

Two subjects in a sentence

Hiwot and Lemlem had a huge fight last week.

There are two subjects in this sentence, “Hiwot” and “Lemlem.” They are joined by the
conjunction “and.” Despite using the word “and,” you cannot split the sentence into two
parts. You need both “Hiwot” and “Lemlem” to have a complete thought.

Hiwot laughed and hung up the phone.

There are two verbs in this sentence, “laughed” and “hung.” The subject, “Hiwot,” is
performing two actions (“laughed” and “hung”). Again, you cannot split the sentence where
the “and” is. You need both parts to make a complete thought.

Practice on Simple sentence

a. Write two simple sentences with one subject and one verb.
a.___________________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________________

2. Write two simple sentences with one subject and two verbs.

a.___________________________________________________________________

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b. _________________________________________________________________

3. Write two simple sentences with two subjects and one verb.

a.___________________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________________

4. Write two simple sentences with two subjects and two verbs.

a.___________________________________________________________________

b. _________________________________________________________________

2. Compound Sentence:

The second type of English sentence is called a compound sentence. In this type of
sentence, you will find two complete thoughts joined by a conjunction such as and, but, or,
nor. A compound sentence is two or more independent clauses joined together. An easy
way to tell if you have a compound sentence is to cross out the conjunction and see if you
have a complete thought on both sides of the conjunction. Here is an example:

Eyosiyas washed the dishes, and Mekdes cleaned the house.

If you were to cross out “and,” would you have two complete thoughts? Yes, you have, in
effect, two sentences: Eyosiyas washed the dishes. Mekdes cleaned the house. The
sentence above, then, is a compound sentence.

You are correct if you noticed that a compound sentence consists of two (or possibly more)
independent clauses. Remember, an independent clause means you have a group of words
with a subject and a verb, and that group of words can stand alone as a complete thought. In
the sentence above, you have two independent clauses: Eyosiyas washed the
dishes/Mekdes cleaned the house.

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Is it possible to have more than two independent clauses? Yes. Here is an example:

Eyosiyas washed the dishes, Mekdes cleaned the house, and Thomas did the laundry.

It is easy to see that there are three independent clauses in this sentence: Eyosiyas washed
the dishes/Mekdes cleaned the house/Thomas did the laundry. Each of these clauses could
stand alone as a complete thought.

Let’s look at punctuation with compound sentences. If you use a conjunction (and, but, or,
nor), the comma is place in front of the conjunction. It is also possible to join to closely
related independent clauses with a semicolon. Here is an example:

Eyosiyas washed the dishes; Mekdes dried them.

There are three ways to join the clauses:

A. With a coordinator

Salt water boils at a higher temperature than freshwater, so food cooks faster in salt water.

B. With a conjunctive adverb

Salt water boils at a higher temperature than freshwater; therefore, food cooks faster in salt
water.

C. With a semicolon

Salt water boils at a higher temperature than freshwater; food cooks faster in salt water.

Let’s study each type of compound sentence in more detail.

Compound Sentences with Coordinators

A compound sentence can be formed as follows:

Independent clause, + coordinator + independent clause

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Salt water boils at a lower temperature than freshwater, so food cooks faster in salt water.

There are seven coordinators, which are also called coordinating conjunctions. You can
remember them by the phrase FAN BOYS (For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So). The following
sentences illustrate the meanings of the seven FAN BOYS coordinators. (Punctuation note:
There is a comma after the first independent clause.)

Coordinators (Coordinating Conjunctions)

To add a reason

For Japanese people live longer than most other nationalities, for they eat
healthy full diets.

To add a similar, equal ideas

and They eat a lot of Fish and vegetables, and they eat lightly.

To add a negative equal idea

nor They do not eat a lot of red meat, nor do they eat many dairy products.

Note: Nor means "and not." It joins two negative independent clauses.

Notice that question word order is used after nor.

To add an opposite idea

but Diet is one factor in how long people live, but it is not the only factor.

To add an alternative possibility

or However, people should limit the amount of animal fat in their diet, or they
risk getting heart disease.

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 To add an unexpected or surprising continuation

yet Cigarette smoking is a factor in longevity, yet Japanese and other long –lived
Asians have a very high rate of tobacco use.

To add an expected result

so Doctors say that stress is another longevity factor, so try to avoid stress if
you wish to live a longer life.

But and yet have similar meanings: They both signal that an opposite idea is coming.
But is preferred when the two clauses are direct opposites. When the second clause is an
unexpected or surprising continuation because of information given in the first clause,
yet is preferred. (But is acceptable for both meanings; yet for only one meaning.)
Compare:

I want to study art, but my parents want me to study engineering. (direct opposite)

I am very bad at math, yet my parents want me to study engineering. (surprising

continuation after "I am very bad at math")

Activity 1

But versus yet

Which coordinator would you use to connect the two clauses in these sentences? Write
either but or yet in the blank space.

1a. Too much sun damages the skin,_________ many people still do not use sunscreen.

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 b. Too much sun damages the skin,_________ too little sun also causes health problems.

2a. The Company’s sales increased last year,_______ its profits declined.

b. The company moved its marketing division to Phoenix,________ the operations

division stayed in Boston.

3a. Population growth has slowed in most developing countries,______ it has not
slowed enough to avoid serious problems.

b. The fertility rate in India has decreased from 6 to 3 births per female, _____ India's

population is expanding at the rate of 18 million per year.

B. Write seven compound sentences of your own, using each coordinator once.

1.and:________________________________________________

2.but:_________________________________________________

3.yet:_________________________________________________

4.for:_________________________________________________

5.or:_________________________________________________

6.so:_________________________________________________

7.nor:________________________________________________

Compound Sentences with Conjunctive Adverbs

A second way to form a compound sentence is as follows:

Independent clause; + conjunctive adverb, + independent clause

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Example: Salt water boils at a higher temperature than freshwater; therefore, food cooks
faster in salt water.

Punctuation note: Put a semicolon before and a comma after the conjunctive adverb.

Several transition signals, such as on the other hand, as a result, and for example, act like
conjunctive adverbs; they can also connect independent clauses with a semi- colon and a
comma. The following chart lists common conjunctive adverbs and a few transition signals
that can be used in this way.

Conjunctive Adverbs

To add a similar, equal idea

also Community colleges offer preparation for many occupations;

also/besides/furthermore/ in addition/moreover, they prepare students
besides
to transfer to a three-year college or university.
furthermore

in addition

moreover
Community colleges offer preparation for many occupations; they
prepare students to transfer to a three-year college or university as

as well well.

too Community colleges offer preparation for many occupations; they

prepare students to transfer to a three-year college or university, too.

To add an unexpected or surprising continuation

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 however The cost of attending a community college is low;

nevertheless however/nevertheless/nonetheless/still, many students need financial

aid.
nonetheless

still

To add a complete contrast

on the Tuition at college is low; on the other hand/ in contrast, tuition at

other hand private schools is high.

in contrast

To give an alternatives possibly

otherwise Students must take final exams; otherwise, they will receive a grade of
incomplete

To add an expected result

accordingly Native and nonnative English speakers have different needs;

accordingly/as a result/ consequently/hence/therefore/thus, most
as a result
schools provide separate English classes for each group.
consequentl
y

hence

therefore

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 thus

To add an example

for Most colleges now have a writing requirement for graduation; for
example example/for instance, students at my college must pass a writing test
before they register for their final semester.
for
instance

B. Write five compound sentences, using each of these conjunctive adverbs once: in
addition, nevertheless, on the other hand, therefore, and for instance.

1. in addition

2. nevertheless

3. on the other hand

4. therefore

5. for instance

Compound Sentences with Semicolons

A third way to form a compound sentence is to connect the two independent clauses with a
semicolon alone:

Eg. Poland was the first Eastern European country to turn away from communism; others
soon followed.

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Note : This kind of compound sentence is possible only when the two independent clauses
are closely related in meaning. If they are not closely related, they should be writ- ten as two
simple sentences, each ending with a period.

Activity 2: Compound Sentences with Semicolons

A. Place a semicolon between the two independent clauses in the following compound
sentences.

1. The practice of yoga strengthens the body and promotes flexibility it also strengthens the
mind and refreshes the soul.

2. Motherhood causes some women to quit their jobs others con1inue working despite
having young children to care for.

3. Three hundred guests attended his wedding two attended his funeral.

B. Write three compound sentences of your own, using a semicolon to join the independent
clauses.

2. Complex Sentence: One INDEPENDENT CLAUSE connected to at least one

DEPENDENT CLAUSE: You can recognize such a dependent clause by the
introductory word that begins with the following type of clause. These introductory
words are words such as when, why, because, whenever, though, although, if, until, how,
while, unless, after, before, as, as if, unless, so that, since, where, who, whose, whom,
which, that, etc. All of these introductory words make it impossible for the clause that
follows it to stand on its on. Here are some examples of dependent clauses:

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  when you find the answer o why he ran away
 if you need more time
 because you lost the money
 whenever you are ready
 though you know the answer
 although he agrees with me
 until time is called
 how he found out
 while you work on the cake
 unless you can tell me
 after I find the solution
 before time is called
A complex sentence is one independent clause plus one or more dependent clauses. Here
are the dependent clauses added to an independent clause. The result is a sentence:
 When you find the answer, let me know.
 I know why he ran away.
 If you need more time, I can give you more time.
 I can’t reimburse you because you lost the money.
 Although I was invited to the party, I didn’t want to go.
 We invited the neighbor to the party even though we don’t like him.

Compound-Complex Sentence:
Though this sentence type seems to be the most difficult of the four sentence types, you
already understand the components of the complex-compound sentence because it is a
combination of the compound sentence and the complex sentence. The compound-
complex sentence must have two or more independent clauses (making it compound) and

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 one or more dependent clauses (making it complex). So, in order to have a compound-
complex sentence, you must have at least three clauses, two of which are independent.

In the following examples, independent clauses are underlined with solid line and
dependent clauses with a dotted line.

1. I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; however, I had to go to work

immediately.

2. After I graduated from college, I wanted to travel; but I had to go to work immediately.

3. I wanted to travel after I graduated from college; but I had to go to work immediately;
because I had to support my family.

4. I could not decide where I should work or what I should do, so at first I did nothing.

Punctuate the compound part of a compound-complex sentence like a compound sentence;

that is, use a semicolon/comma combination (sentence 1), or put a comma before a
coordinator joining two independent clauses (sentences 2, 3, and 4). Punctuate the complex
part like a complex sentence. With adverb clauses, put a comma after a dependent adverb
clause (sentence 2) but not before it (sentence 3). With noun clauses (sentence 4), use no
commas.

Activity 1

Identify the following as S=Simple, Com=Compound, CX=Complex, or CC=Compound-

Complex.

1. The summer has been extremely hot, but I think it’s getting cooler now.

2. Because my car has no air conditioning, I’ve been taking the bus.

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3. When winter comes, we’ll all be complaining about the cold, and with my luck, my
heater will break.

4. I would really love to buy a new car, maybe a Hybrid.

5. In the next five years, I will have enough money to pay off my debt.

6. Fred was concerned about his daughter’s cough; however, it turned out to be nothing
serious. 7. Her alarm didn’t go off this morning because she set it for P.M. instead of A.M.

Add a logical independent clause to each of the dependent clauses. Step 2 Punctuate
each sentence correctly.

The first one has been done for you as an example.

1. I cannot register for classes until I pay my tuition.

2. Unless I take 12 units each term___________________________________
3. _______________________________that computer engineering is a popular major.
4. ______________________________who taught this course last term?
5. Because I had to look for a part-time job__________________________________
6. _______________________________if I want to get to school on time.
7. When I left my country____________________________________

Summary of types of sentences

Simple Sentence: a sentence that has only one clause.

Compound Sentence: a sentence with two or more clauses joined by a coordinating

conjunction. Complex Sentence: two or more clauses joined with a subordinating
conjunction.
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Compound-Complex: three or more clauses joined by coordinating and subordinating
conjunctions. Example: Mom did the dishes. It is cold in the classroom |
but it is hot in the hall

(simple sentence) (Compound sentence)

Coordinating Conjunctions: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so.

Subordinating Conjunctions: as, because, although, since, before, when, once, if, even if,
whatever, whenever, during, until, unless, wherever, whether, while, as if, even if, that

Techniques of Combining Sentences

The main purpose of combining sentences is to transmit a clear message to the reader.

Sentences can be combined through

a/Coordination

b/ Subordination

In Coordination we form compound sentences.

Almaz bought banana. Genet prepared lunch.=

Almaz bought banana, and Genet prepared lunch.

Some people build houses. Others destroy them.=

Some people build houses but others destroy them

In Subordination we form complex sentences. In here, we use adverbial

clauses and relative clauses when we combine sentences.

By using Adverbial Clause

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 The classroom had no enough chairs. It would not be comfortable for the
students to learn. = It would not be comfortable for the students to learn
because the classroom had no enough chairs.

By using Relative clause

I saw a man. The man used to drink thirty bottles of water a day = I saw a
man who used to drink thirty bottles of water a day.

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Constructing Error-Free Sentences

A. Avoiding Fragments

Sentence fragments
A sentence fragment is an incomplete sentence. Some fragments are incomplete
because they lack either a subject or a verb, or both. The fragments that most students
have trouble with, however, are dependent clauses—they have a subject and a verb, so
they look like complete sentences, but they don't express a complete thought. They're
called "dependent" because they can't stand on their own (just like some people you
might know who are SO dependent!). Look at these dependent clauses. They're just
begging for more information to make the thoughts complete:

Because his car was in the shop (What did he do?)

After the rain stops (What then?)

When you finally take the test (What will happen?)

Since you asked (Will you get the answer?)

If you want to go with me (What should you do?)

Does each of these examples have a subject? Yes. Does each have a verb? Yes. So what
makes the thought incomplete?? It's the first word (Because, After, When, Since, If).
These words belong to a special class of words called subordinators or subordinating
conjunctions. If you know something about subordinating conjunctions, you can
probably eliminate 90% of your fragments.
First, you need to know that subordinating conjunctions do three things:

1. join two sentences together

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 2. make one of the sentences dependent on the other for a complete thought (make
one a dependent clause)
3. indicate a logical relationship

Second, you need to recognize the subordinators when you see them. Here is a list of
common subordinating conjunctions and the relationships they indicate:

Cause / Effect: because, since, so that

Contrast: although, even though, though, whereas, while

Place & Manner: how, however, where, wherever

Conditions: if, whether, unless

Relation: that, which, who

Time: after, as, before, since, when, whenever, while, until

Third, you need to know that the subordinator (and the whole dependent clause) doesn't
have to be at the beginning of the sentence. The dependent clause and the independent
clause can switch places, but the whole clause moves as one big chunk. Look at how
these clauses switched places in the sentence:

Since his car was in the shop, John took the bus.

John took the bus since his car was in the shop.

Finally, you need to know that every dependent clause needs to be attached to an
independent clause (remember, the independent clause can stand on its own).

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How do you find and fix your fragments? Remember the basics: subject, verb, and
complete thought. If you can recognize those things, you're halfway there. Then, scan
your sentences for subordinating conjunctions. If you find one, first identify the whole
chunk of the dependent clause (the subject and verb that go with the subordinator), and
then make sure they're attached to an independent clause.

John took the bus. (independent clause) Because his car was in the shop.
(Dependent clause all by itself. Uh oh! Fragment!)

John took the bus because his car was in the shop. (Hooray! It's fixed!)

A sentence fragment is an error that occurs when an incomplete sentence is punctuated

as though it were a complete sentence. When we write a sentence, we have to check if
our sentence has mainly got subject, verb and object/ complement. Fragments mainly
occur after or before subordinate clauses.

Example

We went on foot. Because there was no taxi. →We went on foot, because there was no
taxi.

He was preparing coffee. When I entered the room.→ He was preparing coffee when I
entered the room.

B. Avoiding Run-on Sentences

A run-on sentence is built when two or more complete sentences are written as though
they were one sentence. It is a sentence in which two or more independent clauses (that
is, complete sentences) are joined with no punctuation or conjunction. It is generally
considered to be a grammatical error. Some grammarians also include a comma splice,
in which two independent clauses are joined with a comma without an accompanying
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coordinating conjunction, as a type of run-on sentence, while others exclude comma
splices from the definition of a run-on sentence.

A run-on sentence does not mean a sentence is too long; longer sentences are likely to
be run-ons only when they contain more than one complete idea. A run-on sentence can
be as short as four words—for instance: I drive she walks. In this case there are two
complete ideas (independent clauses): two subjects paired with two (intransitive) verbs.
So long as clauses are punctuated appropriately, a writer can assemble multiple
independent clauses in a single sentence; in fact, a properly constructed sentence can be
extended indefinitely.

Examples
Run-on sentences happen typically under the following circumstances*:

a. When an independent clause gives an order or directive based on what

was said in the prior independent clause:

This next chapter has a lot of difficult information in it, you

should start studying right away.

(We could put a period where that comma is and start a new sentence. A
semicolon might also work there.)

b. When two independent clauses are connected by a transitional

expression (conjunctive adverb) such as however, moreover, nevertheless.

Amir has sent his four children to a college, however, he has

sacrificed his health working day and night in that dusty
bakery.
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 (Again, where that first comma appears, we could have used either a period
— and started a new sentence — or a semicolon.)

c. When the second of two independent clauses contains a pronoun that

connects it to the first independent clause.

This computer doesn't make sense to me, it came without a

manual.

(Although these two clauses are quite brief, and the ideas are closely related,
this is a run-on sentence. We need a period where that comma now stands.)

Most of those computers in the Learning Assistance Center

are broken already, this proves my point about American
computer manufacturers.

Again, two nicely related clauses, incorrectly connected — a run-on. Use a

period to cure this sentence.

Ways to avoid run-on sentences

 Write the two clauses as two separate sentences:

o It is nearly half past five. We cannot reach town before dark.
o Henry Whopper was a teller of tall tales. He even told them to his teachers.
 Insert a coordinating conjunction (such as "and" or "but") after the comma:
o It is nearly half past five, and we cannot reach town before dark.
o Henry Whopper was a teller of tall tales, and he even told them to his
friends.

 Insert a semicolon between the clauses:

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 o It is nearly half past five; we cannot reach town before dark.
o Henry Whopper was a teller of tall tales; he even told them to his teachers.
 Insert a semicolon and a transitional word between the clauses:
o It is nearly half past five; therefore, we cannot reach town before dark.
o Henry Whopper was a teller of tall tales; in fact, he even told them to his
teachers.
 Insert a colon (if the relationship of the second clause clarifies, defines,
exemplifies the first clause):
o No man is an island: we all need to be a part of some community.
o The magician's talents were never disputed: every performance in his
career ended with a standing ovation.

What is a complete sentence? A complete sentence is not merely a group of words

with a capital letter at the beginning and a period or question mark at the end. A
complete sentence has three components:

1. a subject (the actor in the sentence)

2. a predicate (the verb or action), and
3. a complete thought (it can stand alone and make sense—it's independent).

Some sentences can be very short, with only two or three words expressing a complete
thought, like this:

Nunu smiled.

This sentence has a subject (Nunu) and a verb (smiled), and it expresses a complete
thought. We can understand the idea completely with just those two words, so again, it's
independent—an independent clause. But independent clauses (i.e., complete
sentences) can be expanded to contain a lot more information, like this:
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Nunu smiled for the last two days.

Nunu smiled for the last two days because of her good scores.

As your sentences grow more complicated, it gets harder to spot and stay focused on the
basic elements of a complete sentence, but if you look carefully at the examples above,
you'll see that the main thought is still that Nunu smiled—one main subject and one
main verb. No matter how long or short the other sentence parts are, none of them can
stand alone and make sense.

Being able to find the main subject, the main verb, and the complete thought is the first
trick to learn for identifying fragments and run-ons.

Finding run-ons
As you can see, fixing run-ons is pretty easy once you see them—but how do you find
out if a sentence is a run-on if you aren't sure? Rei R. Noguchi, in his book Grammar
and the Teaching of Writing, suggests that you test your sentences with two methods:

1. Turn them into yes/no questions.

2. Turn them into tag questions (sentences that end with a questioning phrase at the
very end—look at our examples below).

These are two things that nearly everyone can do easily if the sentence is not a run-on,
but they become next to impossible if it is.

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Look at the following two sentences:

o Her face is attractive.

o Her face is attractive it is oval in shape

If you turn A into a question that someone could answer with a yes or no, it looks like
this:

Is her face attractive?

If you turn into a tag question, it looks like this:

Her face is attractive, isn't it?

The first sentence is complete and not a run-on, because our test worked. Now, try the
test with the second sentence:

A) Her face is attractive it is oval in shape

The yes/no question can only be made with each separate thought, not the sentence as a
whole:

Is her face attractive? is it oval in shape?

But not:

Is her face attractive is it oval in shape?

The tag question can also only be made with each separate thought, rather than the
whole:

Her face is attractive, isn't it? It's oval in shape, isn't it?

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But never:

Her face is attractive It's oval in shape, isn't it?

Neither test works for you, does it? That's because when you try, you immediately see
that you have more than one complete concept in that sentence, and you can't make the
whole thing turn into one question. Make sure you try both tests with each of your
problem sentences, because you may trick yourself by just putting a tag on the last part
and not noticing that it doesn't work on the first. Some people might not notice that "
Her face is attractive It's oval in shape, isn't it ?" is wrong, but most people will spot the
yes/no question problem right away.
Every once in a while, you or your instructor will see a really long sentence and think
it's a run-on when it isn't. Really long sentences can be tiring but not necessarily
wrong—just make sure that yours aren't wrong by using the tests above.

1. A run-on sentence occurs when two main clause are written with no
punctuation between them.
Eg
She wanted to tell them a story they were not eager to listen.
He was very happy nobody knew the reason.
2 A run-on sentence also occurs when the comma is omitted before a
coordinating conjunction joining two main clauses.

Eg
I wanted to express my feelings but they did not give me the chance
3 Still, another run-on sentence occurs when a comma is used between two
independent clauses.

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 C. Avoiding Misplaced Modifier

A misplaced modifier is a word, phrase, or clause that is improperly separated from the
word it modifies / describes. Modifiers should be placed close to the words they modify
in order to make the meaning of the sentence clear. Misplaced modifiers modify a word
wrongly. To correct the error we move the modifier closer the word it modifies

Because of the separation, sentences with this error often sound awkward, ridiculous, or
confusing. Furthermore, they can be downright illogical.

Example

On his way home, Mamo found a gold man’s watch.

The example above suggests that a gold man owns a watch.

Misplaced modifiers can usually be corrected by moving the modifier to a more sensible
place in the sentence, generally next to the word it modifies.

Example

On her way home, Mamo found a man’s gold watch.

Now it is the watch that is gold.

There are several kinds of misplaced modifiers:

1. Misplaced adjectives are incorrectly separated from the nouns they modify and almost
always distort the intended meaning.

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Example 1

The child ate a cold dish of cereal for breakfast this morning.

Correct the error by placing the adjective next to the noun it modifies.

Corrected

The child ate a dish of cold cereal

Example 2

The stolen student’s book lay on the desk.

Corrected

The student’s stolen book lay on the desk.

Sentences like these are common in everyday speech and ordinarily cause their listeners
no trouble. However, they are quite imprecise and, therefore, should have NO place in
your writing.

2. Placement of adverbs can also change meaning in sentences.

For example, the sentences below illustrate how the placement of just can change the
sentence's meaning.

Just Martha was picked to host the program.

Just means only John was picked, no one else:

Martha was just picked to host the program.

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Just means that Martha was picked now:

Martha was picked to host the program

Just means that Martha hosted only the program, nothing else:

Each of these sentences says something logical but quite different, and its correctness
depends upon what the writer has in mind.

Often, misplacing an adverb not only alters the intended meaning, but also creates a
sentence whose meaning is highly unlikely or completely ridiculous.

This sentence, for example, suggests that we brought a lunch slowly:

We ate the lunch we had brought slowly

To repair the meaning, move the adverb slowly so that it is near ate.

We slowly ate the lunch that we had brought

Watch out for adverbs such as only, just, nearly, merely, and almost. They are often
misplaced and cause an unintended meaning.

This sentence, for example, means that I only contributed the money; nothing did I do.

They only contributed 10 Birr.

Repaired, however, the sentence means that I contributed only $10.00.

They contributed only 10 Birr.

Now click on the link below to complete Exercise 1.

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 3. Misplaced phrases may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a
meaning that does not make sense.

The problem sentences below contain misplaced modifiers that that modify the wrong
nouns. To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the phrases next to the noun they are
supposed to modify.

Example 1 (a buyer with leather laces?)

The man sold shoes to the buyer with leather laces.

Corrected

The man sold the shoes with leather laces to the buyer

Example 2 (a road smoking pipes?)

They walked quietly along the road smoking pipes.

Corrected

Smoking pipes, they walked quietly along the road.

Example 3 (a gate carrying two quintals of wheat ?)

He saw a horse in front of the gate carrying two quintals of wheat.

Corrected

He saw a horse carrying two quintals of wheat in front of the gate.

4. Misplaced clauses may cause a sentence to sound awkward and may create a meaning
that does not make sense.
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 The problem sentences below contain misplaced clauses that modify the wrong nouns.
To fix the errors and clarify the meaning, put the clauses next to the noun they are
supposed to modify.

Example 1 ( a corner wearing a T-shirt?)

I saluted the person at the corner that was wearing a T-shirt.

Corrected

I saluted the person that was wearing a T-shirt at the corner.

Example 2 (a box wore clothes?)

Almaz put her clothes in the box which she wore this week.

Corrected

Almaz put her clothes which she wore this week in the box

Be careful! In correcting a misplaced modifier, don't create a sentence with two possible
meanings.

Example

The teacher said on Monday she would return our essays

Problem: Did the teacher say this on Monday or will she return the essays on
Monday?)

Correction #1 (meaning the essays will be returned on Monday)

The teacher said she would return our essays on Monday.

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 Correction #2 (meaning that the teacher spoke on Monday)

On Monday the teacher said she would return our essays.

D. Avoiding Dangling Modifier

A dangling modifier is a phrase or clause that is not clearly and logically related to the
word or words it modifies (i.e. is placed next to).

Two notes about dangling modifiers:

 Unlike a misplaced modifier, a dangling modifier cannot be corrected by simply

moving it to a different place in a sentence.
 In most cases, the dangling modifier appears at the beginning of the sentence,
although it can also come at the end.

Sometimes the dangling modifier error occurs because the sentence fails to specify
anything to which the modifier can refer.

Example 1

Looking toward the west, a funnel shaped cloud stirred up dust.

This sentence does not specify who is looking toward the west. In fact, there is nothing at
all in the sentence to which the modifying phrase looking toward the west can logically
refer. Since the modifier, looking toward the west, is sitting next to the funnel shaped
cloud, the sentence suggests that the cloud is doing the looking.

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Example 2

When nine years old, my mother awarded me a nice car.

This sentence does not tell us who is nine years old.

At other times the dangling modifier is placed next to the wrong noun or noun substitute.

Example 1

Walking to the museum, the dog bit Melkamu bitterly.

Because of the placement of walking to the movies, this sentence suggests that the dog
is walking to the movies even though a possible walker - Melkamu - is mentioned later.

Example 2

Having been built in three months time, the family felt happy to live in.

Since having been built in three months time is placed prior to the family, the sentence
means that the family was built in three months time.

As the above examples show, dangling modifiers result in inaccurate and sometimes
ludicrous statements.

How to correct dangling modifiers

Dangling modifiers may be corrected in two general ways.

Correction Method #1

1. Leave the modifier as it is.

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 2. Change the main part of the sentence so that it begins with the term actually
modified. This change will put the modifier next to the term it modifies.

Thus, this dangling modifier

Looking toward the west, a funnel shaped cloud stirred up dust.

may be corrected to

Looking toward the west, I saw a funnel shaped cloud stir up dust.

Now the sentence means that I was looking toward the west.

Using the same method, this dangling modifier

Walking to the movies, the cloudburst drenched him

may be corrected to

Walking to the movies, he was drenched by the cloudburst.

Now the sentence means that he was drenched by the cloudburst.

Correction Method #2

1. Change the dangling modifier phrase to a subordinate clause, creating a subject and
verb.
2. Leave the rest of the sentence as it is.

Thus, the dangling modifier

When nine years old, my mother awarded me a nice car

may be corrected to
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When I was nine years old, my mother awarded me a nice car.

Now the sentence means that I (not my mother!) was nine years old when my mother
awarded me a nice car.

Using the same method, the dangling modifier

Walking to the museum, the dog bit Melkamu bitterly.

may be corrected to

While Melkamu was Walking to the museum, the dog bit him bitterly.

Activity One

Rewrite the following sentences to repair any dangling modifiers. Write your new
sentences on the space provided.

1 Writing carefully, the essay was finished in time to hand in._________________

2 My flesh felt creepy after seeing a monster movie. ____________________
3 At the age of four, my grandmother taught me to knit.___________________
4 To do well in college, good grades are essential. _________________________
5 Crowded in the car, the trip was uncomfortable. ________________________
6 While still a student, a job offer was received. _____________________
7 After doing calculus problems for hours, Bekele's foot became numb. ________
8 Driving over the hill, the ocean came into view. __________________________
2. Confused by complicated wording, the contract made no sense. ______________
3. After clearing his throat, his voice sounded much better to me. ______________

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Activity Two

Read each sentence carefully. If the sentence is correct, write C on the line to the right.
If the sentence contains a misplaced modifier, write MM and correct the sentence. If
the sentence contains a dangling modifier, write DM and correct the sentence.

1. When jumping the fence, the rider was thrown by his horse. ___
2. Please give the desk to Martha with the brass inlaid figures. ___
3. The team with the highest number of wins will capture the championship. ___
4. Diets are painful orders which help you lose weight. ___
5. Doctors and lawyers with white hospital coats are well- respected. ___
6. While jogging down the street, a dog bit my neighbor. ___
7. An army which lacks proper equipment will not be an effective fighting force.
8. To enter the Olympics, an athlete must compete very hard. ___
9. Television influences children through its emphasis on violence. ___
10.Tommy with the red stripes is wearing a shirt. ___

2 Never buy a car from a dealer with a broken odometer. ___

3 Only give the book to Thomas. ___
4 American writers who live in Europe gain new perspectives on culture. ___
5 The car was parked on the edge of a cliff which was rusty. ___
6 Country music is loved by many people because it praises simple virtues. ___
7 College students succeed in every aspect who work hard. ___
8 Hitting the tin roof, my sleep was disturbed by the rain. ___
9 Houses provide comfort for people with central air conditioning. ___

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Activity Three

Of the three sentences in each group, select the one that is NOT a sentence
fragment.

1. _____________________________________________________
Almaz gone to visit her mother at the hospital.

Finding a parking space there is not easy during the Christmas week.

Driving in the city during the evening rush hour.

2.________________________________________________________
To apply for a job at the new store in the college.

Asking the interviewer how often he would have to work on weekends.

Shaking his new boss's hand, Belay knew he would like working there.

3. __________________________________________________________
___

By the time Basa found out how expensive the wallpapering job would be.

After getting estimates from five contractors, she decided to do the work
herself.

Before picking out an interesting wallpaper pattern that went well with her
furniture.

4. __________________________________________________________
___
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Who borrowed Stefanie's car Saturday night.

The nineteen-year-old car looked out of place next to the new models.

Which the salesman was surprised to find in such good shape.

5. __________________________________________________________
__
While waiting for her neighbor to move the car that blocked the driveway.

To avoid hitting the other car, Michael had to back across the corner of the
lawn.

By making sure that no one will park across the driveway again.

6. __________________________________________________________
____
Because Genene was sure he had heard the same strange story many
months ago.

Although I will never forget how cold we were when we lost our heat last
winter.

Since Zeberga wasn't at the meeting, I took notes so that he wouldn't miss
anything.

7. __________________________________________________________
___
When my cousin moved to Jima, Addis Ababa, after he finished school.

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After he went to all the trouble of fixing up his apartment.

While living there, he made very few friends.

8. __________________________________________________________
____
My brother has been running a charter fishing boat for five years.

Many of his customers coming back three or four times over the summer.

His business been so busy that he has very little time for anything else.

9. __________________________________________________________
____
In the hiding place that Hussien had been using for years to get away from
the noisy house.

By the time that everyone had quieted down, my favorite television show
was over.

Before planning another family get-together at the already crowded park.

10.__________________________________________________________
____
Although I knew she might wear something outrageous, I was still shocked
by her dress.

Because she didn't want to tell where she had bought the strange outfit.

When we finally heard Run-ons.

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 E. Avoiding Ambiguous Reference

Mostly, pronouns are used incorrectly to refer to more than one antecedent. When this
occurs we reword the sentence or eliminate the pronoun.

Eg

When the students invited the teachers they became very happy. Who were happy?

The teacher told the student that she has been late by five minutes. Who was late?

When the students told them, the story they were pleased. Who were
pleased?

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Chapter Two

2 What of a Paragraph
A paragraph is a group of sentences that relate to the same main idea. The fundamental
unit of composition is the paragraph. Paragraphs are the building blocks of all
documents. Creating coherent and well-developed paragraphs, therefore, is one of the
most important skills for any writer to learn.

A paragraph consists of several sentences that are grouped together. This group of
sentences together discuss one main subject. Paragraphs have three principal
parts. These three parts are the topic sentence, supporting sentences, and the
concluding sentence. We will also talk briefly about details in paragraphs.

The Topic Sentence

A topic sentence is a sentence in a paragraph that carries the main idea of the paragraph.
There are several advantages to stating your main idea in a topic sentence. First,
providing a clear statement of what the paragraph is about helps give your writing
direction. Second, the sentence tells the reader what to focus on. A topic sentence may
appear anywhere in the paragraph. When a topic sentence appears at the beginning of a
paragraph, it lets the reader know what to come. When it is at the end it summarizes the
preceding supporting details and ensures that the reader has understood the main idea.

A topic sentence usually comes at the beginning of a paragraph; that is, it is usually the
first sentence in a formal academic paragraph. (Sometimes this is not true, but as you
practice writing with this online lesson site, please keep to this rule unless you are
instructed otherwise.) Not only is a topic sentence the first sentence of a paragraph, but,
more importantly, it is the most general sentence in a paragraph. What does "most

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general" mean? It means that there are not many details in the sentence, but that the
sentence introduces an overall idea that you want to discuss later in the paragraph.

For example, suppose that you want to write a paragraph about the natural landmarks of
your hometown. The first part of your paragraph might look like this

My hometown is famous for several amazing natural

features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River,
which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the other
side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual
because it is very steep.

Note how the first sentence, My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for several amazing
geographical features,is the most general statement. This sentence is different from the
two sentences that follow it, since the second and third sentences mention specific details
about the town's geography, and are not general statements.

Here are some examples of sentences that cannot be used as topic sentences. Can you
figure out why they are inappropriate?

1.My hometown is famous because it is located by

Wheaton River, which is very wide, and because it is
built near an unusually steep hill called Wheaton Hill.

2.There are two reasons why some people like to buy

cars with automatic transmission and two reasons why
others like cars with manual transmission.

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 3.Clouds are white.

The problem with sentence #1 is that it contains too many details. Topic sentences are
general, and details should appear later in the paragraph. A better topic sentence would
be like the one mentioned above, My hometown is famous for several amazing
geographical features.

Sentence #2 is not appropriate as a topic sentence because it mentions two topics, not just
one. Paragraphs are usually about one main thing and so their topic sentences should also
be about only one main thing.

The problem with sentence #3 is that it is too general. It is also very boring! Would you
like to read a paragraph with this topic sentence? Most people would not.

We can rewrite sentences #2 and #3 in the following ways to make it better

 There are two reasons why some people like to

buy cars with automatic transmission.

OR (in a different paragraph):

 There are two reasons why some people like

cars with manual transmission.

 The shapes of clouds are determined by various

factors.

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Supporting Sentences

Supporting details give explanations or examples about the topic sentence. In a paragraph
whose unit is insured, each sentence provides one or more details that support the main
idea. The supporting details may be sensory details, examples or incidents, facts,
statistics, and reasons.

Consider again the above-mentioned, short paragraph

My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for several

amazing natural features. First, it is noted for the
Wheaton River, which is very wide and beautiful.
Also, on the other side of the town is Wheaton Hill,
which is unusual because it is very steep.

When a reader reads a topic sentence, such as My hometown, Wheaton, is famous for
several amazing natural features,a question should usually appear in the reader's
mind. In this case, the question should be like, "What are the natural features that make
Wheaton famous?" The reader should then expect that the rest of the paragraph will
give an answer to this question.

Now look at the sentences after the topic sentence. We can see that the second sentence
in the paragraph, First, it is noted for the Wheaton River, which is very wide and
beautiful,indeed gives an answer to this question. That is, the second sentence gives some
explanation for the fact that Wheaton is a famous town. Similarly, we can see that the
third sentence also gives some explanation for the fact that Wheaton is famous by giving
another example of an "amazing natural feature," in this case, Wheaton Hill.

The second and third sentences are called supporting sentences. They are called
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"supporting" because they "support," or explain, the idea expressed in the topic
sentence. Of course, paragraphs in English often have more than two supporting
ideas. The paragraph above is actually a very short paragraph. At minimum, you
should have at least five to seven sentences in your paragraph. Here we can see our
paragraph about Wheaton with a few more supporting sentences in bold font

My hometown is famous for several amazing natural

features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River,
which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the other
side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual
because it is very steep. The third amazing feature is
the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet
tall and is probably about six hundred years old.

In this lesson, we will talk about supporting sentences again in the section, "Details in
Paragraphs," below.

The Concluding Sentence

In formal paragraphs you will sometimes see a sentence at the end of the paragraph
which summarizes the information that has been presented. This is the concluding
sentence. You can think of a concluding sentence as a sort of topic sentence in reverse.

You can understand concluding sentences with this example. Consider a hamburger that
you can buy at a fast-food restaurant.* A hamburger has a top bun (a kind of bread),
meat, cheese, lettuce, and other elements in the middle of the hamburger, and a bottom
bun. Note how the top bun and the bottom bun are very similar. The top bun, in a way, is
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like a topic sentence, and the bottom bun is like the concluding sentence. Both buns
"hold" the meat, onions, and so on. Similarly, the topic sentence and concluding
sentence "hold" the supporting sentences in the paragraph. Let's see how a concluding
sentence (in bold font) might look in our sample paragraph about Wheaton

My hometown is famous for several amazing natural

features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River,
which is very wide and beautiful. Also, on the other
side of the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual
because it is very steep. The third amazing feature is
the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two hundred feet
tall and is probably about six hundred years old.
These three landmarks are truly amazing and
make my hometown a famous place.

Notice how the concluding sentence, These three landmarks are truly amazing and make
my hometown a famous place,summarizes the information in the paragraph. Notice also
how the concluding sentence is similar to, but not exactly the same as, the topic
sentence.

Not all academic paragraphs contain concluding sentences, especially if the paragraph is
very short. However, if your paragraph is very long, it is a good idea to use a concluding
sentence.
Details in Paragraphs

The short paragraph in this lesson is a fairly complete paragraph, but it lacks

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details. Whenever possible, you should include enough details in your paragraphs to
help your reader understand exactly what you are writing about. In the paragraph about
Wheaton, three natural landmarks are mentioned, but we do not know very much about
them. For example, we could add a sentence or two about Wheaton river concerning
HOW wide it is or WHY it is beautiful. Consider this revision (and note the additional
details in bold)

My hometown is famous for several amazing natural

features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton River,
which is very wide and beautiful. On either side of
this river, which is 175 feet wide, are many willow
trees which have long branches that can move
gracefully in the wind. In autumn the leaves of
these trees fall and cover the riverbanks like
golden snow. Also, on the other side of the town is
Wheaton Hill, which is unusual because it is very
steep. Even though it is steep, climbing this hill is
not dangerous, because there are some firm rocks
along the sides that can be used as stairs. There
are no trees around this hill, so it stands clearly
against the sky and can be seen from many miles
away. The third amazing feature is the Big Old Tree.
This tree stands two hundred feet tall and is probably
about six hundred years old. These three landmarks
are truly amazing and make my hometown a famous
place.

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If we wished, we could also add more details to the paragraph to describe the third
natural feature of the area, the Big Old Tree.

Why are details important? Consider the example of the hamburger, mentioned
above.* If the hamburger buns are the topic and concluding sentences, then the meat, the
cheese, the lettuce, and so on are the supporting details. Without the food between the
hamburger buns, your hamburger would not be very delicious! Similarly, without
supporting details, your paragraph would not be very interesting.

A Note on Formality. In addition to having a particular kind of structure, academic

paragraphs (and multi-paragraph essays, which will be topic of another lesson) are
different from "ordinary writing" (such as letter writing) in that certain kinds of
expressions are not allowed. For example, in formal essays, you should not use
contractions such as don't or aren't. Instead, you should write out the words in full, for
example, do not and are not.

Also, in formal essays you should avoid the first and second person. That is, do not use
the pronouns I or you. The pronouns we and us are sometimes used in formal essays in
some major fields, but in general you should not use these unless you are certain that
they are customary in your field and/or your professor allows them. It is safer simply to
use the third person.

< academic in avoid should you that expresions informal some about learn to table
following the>

TOO
ACCEPTABLE
INFORMAL

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 (Do not use)

don't do not

doesn't does not

aren't are not

weren't were not

can't cannot

couldn't could not

won't will not

Kinds of Paragraphs
1 Definition Paragraph

When writing a definition paragraph, you take a thing or an idea and explain what it is.

Example: Write a paragraph giving the definition of a pest.

The following phrases can help you to write a good definition paragraph:

1. "is defined as"

Example: A pest is defined as any animal or plant that damages crops, forests, or

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 property.

2. "is a kind of"

Example: A pest is a kind of animal or plant that damages crops, forests, or property.

2 Classification Paragraph

When writing a classification paragraph, you group things or ideas into specific
categories.

Example: Write a paragraph discussing two types of energy resources.

The following phrases can help you to write a good classification paragraph:

Helper Words:

is a kind of

can be divided into

is a type of

falls under

belongs to

is a part of

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fits into

is grouped with

is related to

is associated with

3 Description Paragraph

In a description paragraph, you are writing about what a person, place, or thing is like.
Sometimes, you may describe where a place is located.

Examples: Write a paragraph describing what a polar bear looks like.

Describe where Canada's industry is located.

The following words/phrases can help you to write a good description paragraph:

Helper Words:

Properties Measurement Analogy Location

size length is like in

colour width resembles above

shape mass/weight below

purpose speed beside

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 near

north/east/south/west

Properties

size
Example: Polar bears are big in size.

colour
Example: Polar bears are usually white in colour.

shape
Example: Polar bears have a special shape.

purpose
Example: The purpose of the polar bear's fur is to keep it warm.

Measurement

length
Example: The length of a polar bear's claws is 20 cm.

width
Example: The width of a polar bear's head is about 50 cm.

mass /

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weight
Example: Polar bears weigh up to 650 kg.

speed
Example: Polar bears can swim at a speed of 40 km per hour.

Analogy

is like

Example: A polar bear is like other bears in shape.

resembles
Example: A polar bear resembles other bears in shape.

Location

in
Example: Most of Canada's manufacturing is located in Ontario and Quebec.

above
Example: The ceiling is above us.

below
Example: Most of Ontario is below Hudson Bay.

beside
Example: Quebec is located beside Ontario.

near
Example: Many companies are located near Toronto.

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north / east / south / west

Example: Ontario is west of Quebec.

4 Compare and Contrast Paragraph

In a compare and contrast paragraph, you write about the similarities and differences
between two or more people, places, things, or ideas.

Example: Write a paragraph comparing the weather in Vancouver and Halifax.

The following words/phrases can help you to write a good compare and contrast
paragraph:

Helper Words:

Similarities Differences

is similar to On the other hand

both however

also but

too in contrast

as well differs from

while

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 unlike

5 Explanation Paragraph
In an explanation paragraph, you need to explain how or why something happens. Very
often in social studies class, you will be asked to explore causes and effects of certain
events.

Example: Write a paragraph explaining why so many Europeans moved to Canada

during the nineteenth century.

The following words/phrases can help you to write a good explanation paragraph:

Helper Words:

Cause Effect

because therefore

since thus

as a result of consequently

is due to hence

it follows that

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 if . . . then

Qualities of a Sound Paragraph

Coherence, Unity, and Cohesion in Paragraph Writing

1 Coherence

Coherence refers to a certain characteristic or aspect of writing. Literally, the word

means "to stick together." Coherence in writing means that all the ideas in a
paragraph flow smoothly from one sentence to the next sentence. With coherence,
the reader has an easy time understanding the ideas that you wish to express.

Consider the following paragraph

My hometown is famous for several amazing

natural features. First, it is noted for the Wheaton
River, which is very wide and beautiful. On either
side of this river, which is 175 feet wide, are
many willow trees which have long branches that
can move gracefully in the wind. In autumn the
leaves of these trees fall and cover the riverbanks
like golden snow. Second, on the other side of
the town is Wheaton Hill, which is unusual
because it is very steep. Even though it is steep,
climbing this hill is not dangerous, because there
are some firm rocks along the sides that can be
used as stairs. There are no trees around this hill,
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 so it stands clearly against the sky and can be seen
from many miles away. The third amazing
feature is the Big Old Tree. This tree stands two
hundred feet tall and is probably about six
hundred years old. These three landmarks are
truly amazing and make my hometown a famous
place.

In this paragraph the words in bold type are used to insure the coherence of the
paragraph.
Major Connectors

Look at the words in bold font. Do you see how they help guide the reader? For
example, consider the words, First, Second, and The third amazing feature. We
can call these words major connectors. Major connectors help organize the main
parts of your paragraph. This paragraph has three main parts: (1) a part about the
Wheaton River, (2) a part about Wheaton Hill, and (3) a part about the Big Old
Tree. Another way of saying this is that this paragraph has three main points which
are indicated by the major connectors. Using such major connectors is an important
way of providing coherence in a paragraph.

Minor Connectors

What about the other words in bold, such as those appearing in the phrases "these
trees" and "this hill"? We can call these minor connectors. Minor connectors
provide coherence to a paragraph by connecting sentences within each of the main
parts of your paragraph. That is, when you write about your main points, you can
use minor connectors to link your details to each main point.
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 Now, look at this paragraph. Can you identify the main points?

Each of the U.S. manned space exploration

projects had specific major goals. The Mercury
project was designed to test whether or not human
beings could survive and function in outer space.
The Mercury project tested rockets with the new
Mercury space capsule, which could hold one
person. The Gemini project was intended to find
out whether two people could work in the
weightless environment of space. Gemini
astronauts took "spacewalks." They floated
outside their spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected
to it by a tether. Gemini astronauts tried out new
flying skills. Some astronauts flew two spacecraft
extremely close together; this procedure was
called "rendezvous." On some Gemini flights,
astronauts physically linked two spacecraft
together. Linking, or "space docking," was a
major goal of the Gemini program. The Apollo
project, with three astronauts, was intended to test
spacecraft and skills so that people could actually
fly to the Moon and land on it. Performing
scientific experiments on the lunar surface and
collecting rocks for study on Earth were goals.

Was this paragraph a little confusing to read? Now consider the same paragraph

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 with a few changes:

Each of the U.S. manned space exploration

projects had specific major goals. For example,
the Mercury project was designed to test whether
or not human beings could survive and function in
outer space. In addition, the Mercury project
tested rockets with the new Mercury space
capsule, which could hold one person. As another
example, the Gemini project was intended to find
out whether two people could work in the
weightless environment of space. One way of
doing this was by having Gemini astronauts take
"spacewalks." That is, they floated outside their
spacecraft in a spacesuit, connected to it by a
tether. Gemini astronauts alsotried out new flying
skills. For example, some astronauts flew two
spacecraft extremely close together; this
procedure was called "rendezvous." On some
Gemini flights, astronauts physically linked two
spacecraft together. This linking, or "space
docking," was a major goal of the Gemini
program. Finally, the Apollo project, with three
astronauts, had the goal of testing spacecraft and
skills so that people could actually fly to the
Moon and land on it. Other goals included
performing scientific experiments on the lunar

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 surface and collecting rocks for study on Earth.

Do you see which of the connectors above are major and which are minor? The
major ones are For example in the second sentence, which introduces the first
supporting point (the Mercury program); As another example, which begins the
second main point (the Gemini program); and the word Finally, which introduces
the third and last main point (the Apollo moon program). (In the paragraph above,
all of the major connectors are underlined.)

As for the minor connectors, we can divide them into three groups. The first group
of minor connectors provides coherence for the first main point (the Mercury
program). There is only one minor connector in this first group, In addition,
although it is possible to have more than one, depending on how many details you
have to support your first main point.

The second group of minor connectors consists of That is, also, and also the phrase
For example in the sentence, "For example, some astronauts..." Notice that this last
minor connector is the same as the major connector at the beginning of the
paragraph. However, the function of each is different, depending on the meaning of
the sentences.

The third group of minor connectors in this particular paragraph also has one
member, which is Other goals included....

Here is a table of a few common connectors (also called transitions):

For example, As another example, On the one

For instance, Another example (of hand,

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 One example (of this] is (that) On the other
this) is Finally, hand,
First, Second, In conclusion, However,
Third, etc. To summarize, ..., but...
also

2 Unity

Unity is a very important characteristic of good paragraph writing. Paragraph unity

means that one paragraph is about ONLY ONE main topic. That is, all the
sentences -- the topic, supporting sentences, the detail sentences, and (sometimes)
the concluding sentence -- are all telling the reader about ONE main topic. If your
paragraph contains a sentence or some sentences that are NOT related to the main
topic, then we say that the paragraph "lacks unity," or that the sentence is "off-
topic."

Look at the following paragraph, which is similar to the paragraph that we have
studied above. Does it have perfect unity? Try to find the sentence that is off-topic:

Each of the Russian manned space exploration

projects had specific major goals. For example,
the Vostok project was designed to test whether or
not human beings could survive and function in
outer space. For another example, the Voshkhod
project was intended to find out whether people
could work in the weightless environment of

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 space. One Voshkhod cosmonaut experimented
with weightlessness by taking a "spacewalk."
That is, he floated in a spacesuit outside his
Voshkhod spacecraft, connected to it by a tether.
The cosmonaut to do this was Alexei Leonov.
Several weeks later, Leonov's spacewalk was
followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White.
Finally, the Soyuz project, with three cosmonauts,
had goals of testing spacecraft and spaceflight
skills so that people could fly long missions in
Earth orbit.

This paragraph is generally good, but the sentence, Several weeks later, Leonov's
spacewalk was followed by that of U.S. astronaut Ed White, does not have anything
to do with the major goals of the various Russian space projects. That is, it is an
"off-topic" sentence, so we can say that the paragraph somewhat lacks unity. In
order to improve the paragraph, we should omit this sentence, even though it is
historically accurate.

3 Cohesion

Cohesion is the use of pronouns (he, she, it), demonstratives (this, that) and other
referring expressions.

Why is cohesion important?

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 Cohesion is important because it enables us to make multiple references to
people, things, and events. If we had to repeat these every time we wanted to refer
to them, the text would be very tedious to read. For example:

John Smith arrived early at the hall. There was no-one else around at the hall.
John Smith tried to the door of the hall. The door was unlocked. John Smith
opened the door. John Smith went through the door. John Smith shut the door
behind John Smith. Suddenly there was a loud noise. The loud noise made John
Smith jump.

Task: Rewrite the above text so replacing or deleting all unnecessary repetitions.

What is a referent?

A referent is the word which is being referred to with words like they, their, it,
him and so on.

What is topicalisation?

When we write a sentence or a question we have to decide what thing, action or

piece of information is the most important for our purposes. We then make that
piece of information the topic of the sentence or question. For example:

Tony gave John a book.

(Here the information focus is on the performer of the action.)

John was given a book by Tony.

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 (Here the focus is on the recipient of the action.)

A book was given to John by Tony.

(The focus of this sentence is the object rather than the giver or receiver.)

To achieve cohesion ( the link of one sentence to the next) consider the following
techniques:

1. Repetition. In sentence B (the second of any two sentences), repeat a word from
sentence A.

2. Synonymy. If direct repetition is too obvious, use a synonym of the word you
wish to repeat. This strategy is call 'elegant variation.'

3. Antonymy. Using the 'opposite' word, an antonym, can also create sentence
cohesion, since in language antonyms actually share more elements of meaning
than you might imagine.

4. Pro-forms. Use a pronoun, pro-verb, or another pro-form to make explicit

reference back to a form mentioned earlier.

5. Collocation. Use a commonly paired or expected or highly probable word to

connect one sentence to another.

6. Enumeration. Use overt markers of sequence to highlight the connection between

ideas. This system has many advantages: (a) it can link ideas that are otherwise
completely unconnected, (b) it looks formal and distinctive, and (c) it promotes a
second method of sentence cohesion, discussed in (7) below.
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 7. Parallelism. Repeat a sentence structure. This technique is the oldest, most
overlooked, but probably the most elegant method of creating cohesion.

8. Transitions. Use a conjunction or conjunctive adverb to link sentences with

particular logical relationships.

a. Identity. Indicates sameness.

that is, that is to say, in other words, ...

b. Opposition. Indicates a contrast.

but, yet, however, nevertheless, still, though, although, whereas, in contrast,

rather, ...

c. Addition. Indicates continuation.

and, too, also, furthermore, moreover, in addition, besides, in the same way,
again, another, similarly, a similar, the same, ...

d. Cause and effect.

therefore, so, consequently, as a consequence, thus, as a result, hence, it follows

that, because, since, for, ...

e. Indefinites. Indicates a logical connection of an unspecified type.

in fact, indeed, now, ...

f. Concession. Indicates a willingness to consider the other side.

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 admittedly, I admit, true, I grant, of course, naturally, some believe, some people
believe, it has been claimed that, once it was believed, there are those who would
say, ...

g. Exemplification. Indicates a shift from a more general or abstract idea to a more

specific or concrete idea.

for example, for instance, after all, an illustration of, even, indeed, in fact, it is
true, of course, specifically, to be specific, that is, to illustrate, truly, ...

Chapter Three

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